f,"^

/

^^m;

Oi^^^

'^f^ f

CA,H

\zi^

/^*/\

I

WHITNEY LIBRARY,
IIARVAKD UNIVERSITY.

THE GIFT OF
J. D. WHITNEY,

Sturtjis Hooper Professor

MUSEUM or COMPAKATIVE ZOOLOGY

THE

CANADIAN

^ataralist ma geologist,

AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

OF MONTREAL.

• ONDUOTED BY A COMMITTEE OP THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

VOLUME VII.

Pontreal:
PUBLISHED BY DAWSON BROTHERS, 23 GREAT ST. JAMES ST.
'^'1862.

CANADIAN NATURALIST

This Magazine is published bi-monthly, and is conducted by a Com-
mittee of the Natural History Society of Montreal.

EDITORS FOE THE YEAE 1862—3.

J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S., Principal of McGill College.
T. Sterry Hunt, A.M., F.R.S., Chemist to Geological Survey of Canada.
E. Billings, F.G.S., Palceontologist, " " "'

Prof. S. P. Robbins.

General Editor. — David A. Poe Watt.

EX OFFICIO.

"W. H. HiNGSTON, M.D., Corresponding Secretary Nat. Hist. Society.
John Leeming, Recording Secretary " " "

Entered according to the Act of the Provincial Parliament, in the year
One Thousand Eight Hundred and Sixty-two, by Dawson Brothers,
in the Office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME VII.

PAffB

Abticlb I. — On the Primitive Formations in Norway and in Canada,

Part I. By Thomas Macfarlane 1.

II. — On the Shore Zones and Limits of Marine Plants in

the United States. By the Rev. Alex. F. Kemp 20

III. — Contributions to Meteorology for' the year 1861, By

Charles Smallwood, M.D. LL. D 34

IV. — On the Mammals and Birds of the District of Montreal.

By Archibald Hall, M.D. Part II 44

V. — Note on the laconic System of Emmons. By T. Sterry

Hunt, M.A., F.R.S 78

VI. — Notes on the Flora of the White Mountains, in its Geo-
graphical and Geological relations. By J. W. Daw-
son, LL.D., F.G.S 81

VII. — On the failure of the Apple Trees in the neighborhood

of Montreal. By John Archbold 102

Vni. — On an Erect Sigillaria and a Carpolite from the Joggins,

Nova Scotia. By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S 106

IX.— On the Primitive Formations in Norway and in Ca-
nada. Part II. By Thomas Macfarlane 113

X. — The New Spectrum Discoveries 129

XI. — List of Diurnal Lepidoptera from the vicinity of

London, C. W. By W. Saunders 130

XII. — An account of the Botanical and Mineral products,
used by the Chipewyan Indians. By Bernard R.

Ross 133

XIII. — List of Mammals, Birds, and Eggs, from the McKen-

zie's River District. By Bernard R. Ross 137

XIY. -Notes on Chemical Subjects. By Prof. S. P Bobbins.. 15S
XV. — On the date of the Report on the Geology of Wiscon-
sin. By E. Billings 156

XVI. — On the Primitive Formations in Norway and in Cana-
da. Part III. By Thomas Macfarlane 161

XVII. — On the Mammals and Birds of the District of MontreaL

By Archibald Hall, M.D. Part III 171

XVIII.— On the Extraction of Cobalt Oxide from Iron Pyrites. By

Thomas Macfarlane ^ 194

XIX. — List of Entomologists in Canada. By Rev. Charles J.

S. Bethune 199

XX.— On the Chemistry of the Earth. By T. Sterry Hunt,

M.A., F.R.S 201

XXI. — Description of a new Enaliosaurian from the Coal Mea-
sures of Nova Scotia. By 0. C. Marsh, B. A 205

XXII.— A Lecture on Force. By Prof. John Tyndal, F.R.S.. 241
XXIII. — On the Utilisation of the Power involved in the Rise

and Fall of the Tides 252

XXIV. — On the Primitive Formations. From the German of

Naumann, by Thomas Macfarlane 254

XXV.— On Jphui Avm(R. By George Lawson, Ph. D., LL.D. 264
XXVI. — On the footprints of Limulus, by J. W. Dawson,

LL.D., F.R.S., &c 271

IV INDEX.

PAGE.
XXVIL — On the destruction of Apple-trees by Saperda Candida.

By William Couper 278

XXYIII. — Discovery of Microscopic Organisms in the Siliceous

Nodules of the Palaeozoic Rocks of New York. . . . 281
XXIX. — List of Orthoptera collected on a trip from Assiniboia

to Cumberland. By Samuel H. Scudder 283

XXX. — On the Mammals and Birds of the District of Montreal.

By Archibald Hall, M.D. Part IV 289

XXXI. — On the Geology and Physical Characteristics of New-
foundland. By Moses H. Perley 321

XXXII. — Review of Hooker's Outlines of the Distribution of

Arctic Plants 334

XXXIII. — On the Mammals and Birds of the District of Montreal.

By Archibald Hall, M.D. Part V 344

XXXIV.— On the Cattskill Group of New York. By Prof. J. Hall. 377
XXXV. — On the superficial deposits in Canada, By Charles

Robb, C.E 382

XXXVI. — Remarks on Prof. Hall's Contributions to Palaeontolo-
gy. By E. Billings, F. G. S 389

XXXVII. — Remarks on Tceniapectinata. By Dr. T. Spencer Cob-
bold 394

XXXVIII. — Col. E. Jewett, of Albany, on the age of some

rocks in New York 395

XXXIX. — On the Mammals and Birds of the District of Mon-
treal. By Archibald Hall, M. D. Part VI 401

XL. — Notes on some of the habits of the pine-boring beetles

of the genus Monohammus. By E, Billings, F.G.S. 430
XLI. — Zoological Classification ; or Ccelenterata and Protozoa.

versus Radiata. By Prof. J. W. Dawson, F. R. S. 438
XLII. — On a new Crustacean from the Potsdam sandstone. By

Prof. James Hall 443

XLIII. — Contributions to the History of the Acton Copper Mine.

By Thomas Macfarlane 447

RiTiEws AND Notices of Books.

A Manual of the Sub-Kingdom Ccslenterata. By Prof. Greene.. 158

Scrii)ture and Science. By Archdeacon Pratt , . 159

OflBcial Reports of the Geology of Kentucky, Wisconsin, Maine,

and the Colorado River 213

Descriptive Catalogue of the Economic Minerals of Canada. . . 216

Dana's Manual of Geology 474

Miscellaneous.

Chromic Iron ore and Asbestus. , 80

Notice of the Natural History Collections of the McGill College, 221

On the Land Flora of the Devonian Period, in N. E. America. 223
Couper on the Occurrence of the Blue Grosbeak, Stone Chat,

and Yellow Rail, near Quebec 319

Honeyman on the Gold Fields of Nova Scotia 3 20

Meeting of Entomologists 396

On the age of the Pyramids of Egypt 472

On the cause of attraction .... 473

Correspondence.

An Entomological Grave-digger 317

K atural History S ociktt.

Annual Meeting of 224

Report of, for 18G1-2 ' .* .' 230

Proceedings of 399

LIST OF ERRATA.
Volume V.

Paf'e 244, line 15 from bottom, for "Environs," read "Emmons."
u u u 3 " " " " 1850," read " 1858."

" 247 " 11 " top, " " Thisbe;' read " Thysbe."

u "' " 3 " bottom, " '^ McMurtrici,'' read ''McMurtreei:'
u 248 " 6 " " " " contiqua," read " contiguaj'

" 249, *' 8 " top, after "Spring" insert a full stop, and

"Imago in."
u u «' 9 « bottom, for " 1448," read " 1488."
<i 251 " 9 " top, insert " on the outerside" after "accom-
panied."
ti a « 18 " bottom, for " cones," read " leaves."
a 253 " 7 " top, for "/i/iea^«," read "Zinea^jri/na."
" 255' " 6 " " " "incomplete," read "incompletely,"

and omit the comma after it.
(( u ii 14 u u u iipisco,'^ vead ^^fusco."
II ii « 19 " " insert " is " after " hue."
({ u ii 21 " " for " uniform," read " cuneiform."
" 258 " 17 " bottom, for "^/Yt§og-opo7us," read "0-ag-o/)OgOMi?."
" ''62' " 11 " top, insert a full stop after " White," and sup-

' ply a capital H to " head."

" 264, " 18 " bottom, for " 8," read " 6."
{I li u >i u a " " Cerrino,'' read " Cervino."

Volume VI.

Page 36, line 7 from bottom, for " denis," read " dei-iis:'

" 3^ " 19 " " " "corai'erzaria," read "coni-ergana.-

" 40' " 18 " top, for " Sugar-bush," read " Round."

i: u' (£ 17 u bottom, for "fose/nia," read "cor«7?u"a."

(( u a 16 " " " " cons^jers^," read " cons^jersa."

"41 "16 " top, for ^^fusio," read ^^fusco."

it 121' " 7 " bottom, dele "F. 30th June."

II u' u 5 a a for 13th," "read "30th."

(( u u 3 u a after " Town " add " Line."

129 » 6 " " " " Sphagnum," dele " and.'

123,

^^^ 10 " " for "distinct," read "district."

124' << 1 " " add " Limestone " before " rocks."
u 126 '' 24 " " for " June," read " September."
" 13l' " 16 " " " " pine," read " fine."

II (£ ' (£ 3 u ii " " pinging," read " fringing."

li 133 it 4 'J top, for " Chip-nambo," read " Chip-munk."
u a ^ II 7 a a u a 20th June," read " 16th July."
" " after " Smilacina stellata," add " Smilnchia bifolia, Ker.

Abundant everywhere in woods ; F. 20th June."
" 136, line 11 from top, for " 30 Tune," read " 30th June."
'• Sugar-Bush Lake" frequently occurs instead of "Round Lake."
'■■ St. Jean Lake " instead of " Eagle-nest Lake."
'• Chain Lake " instead of " Balsam Lake."

Volume VII.

rage 81, last line for " Plcdrophanes nivalis'' read " Fringilla {Junco)

hy emails."
" 101 line 4th from bottom, for " those which escape," read " that
which escapes" ; and line 2nd from bottom, for "render," read
" renders."
" 377, line 10 from top for "specimens" read "species,
a 380 '< 3 " " after parenthesis, insert " between."
" 381 " 27 " " for "4th" read "3rd."

THE

CANADIA2s^

MTUMLIST AID GEOLOGIST.

Vol, YII. FEBRUARY, 1862. No. 1.

ARTICLE I. — On, the Primitive Formations in Norway and
in Canada^ and their Mineral Wealth, By Thomas
Macfarlane,

(Presented to the Natural History Society.)

Some apology may appear necessary here for the use of a terra,
regarded by many geologists as calculated to perpetuate false'
ideas as to the character and origin of the series of rocks which
it comprehends. The object of the following paper, however,
being merely to point out certain analogies, and possibly, differ-
ences, between certain groups of rocks in Norway, and their
equivalents in Canada, the name given them is of minor import-
ance ; and when it is considered how difficult it is to choose
among the various terms which have been proposed and used for
designating these formations, the one adopted in the above title
may appear excusable, and not perhaps be deemed unserviceable
on this occasion.

The groups of rocks, whose equivalents in Norway I propose
in some measure to describe, are here known as the Laurentian
system, the Huronian and the Metamorphic Silurian series.
The first of these is generally designated the Primitive Gneiss
formation, {Urgneiss Formation) in Germany and Scandi-
navia, while the two last mentioned groups make up what is
termed there the Primitive Slate formation (Urschiefer For-
mation). I propose to describe these groups of rocks as they
Can. Xat. 1 Vol. VII.

2 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

occur in Norway, principally in regard to their petrographical
and economic characters. I shall follow the order in which they
are mentioned above, inserting at the end of each description, a
few remarks on their development in Canada. The various facts
related in the following descriptions are principally derived from
such authorities as Naumaun and Keilhau ; my personal obser-
vations of the districts under notice, having only served to im-
print on my mind the descriptions of these and other philoso-
phers. The particulars narrated as to the various mining estab-
lishment^', are to a great extent however, the results of my own
experience and observation. As to the various features touched
upon with regard to Canada, my principal source of information
has of course been the reports of the officers of the Geological

Survey.

I. The Primitive Gneiss Formation.

In Keilhau's "First attempt towards a Geological Map of
Norway," as yet the only complete geological map of the coun-
try published, there are distinguished three geographical divisions,
belono-ino- to the Primitive Gneiss formation, separated from each
other by groups of rocks, belonging either to the primitive slate,
the eruptive granite and syenite, or to the Silurian series.
The first of these is situated high up in Finmark, its most north-
ern point being tlie North Cape. The second stretches from
Beiern-fiord, north of Trondhiem, along the whole coast of Nor-
way, southward to Christiansand, and from thence north-east-
ward to Kragero. To this division, the gneiss districts of
Kongsberg and Modum also belong. The third division is that
lying to the eastward of Christiania-fiord and lake Miosen.
These three divisions form only the most westerly parts of the
great Primitive Gneiss formation, which extends through Sweden
to Finland, and which is the characteristic feature of Scandina-
vian geology. The rocks which constitute this formation are the
following : —

1. Gneiss in many varieties, the most common being what is
called by Keilliau, characteristic gneiss^ and which he thus de-
scribes. " Tlie rock consists of white or reddish white feldspar,
(orthoclase), grey quartz and black mica; the feldspar and quartz
being combined with each other granularly, and the mica ar-
ranged in this mass in parallel layers ; so that the structure is
more an alternatively granular and slaty one, than a regularly
slaty structure, with quite equal distributions of the three con-

in Norway and in Canada, 3

stituents. In this way, there is caused a characteristic streaked
appearance, sometimes with broad black or dark grey bands, and
sometimes with the same streaks, narrower an] farther from each
other, according as the mica is more plentifully or more sparingly
distributed in the rock. The grains of feldspar, quartz and mica,
are mostly rather small in this variety of gneiss, so that it seldom
becomes coarsely granular." Gcea Norvegica^ p. 251. Through
a gradual disappearance of the feldspar ; the gneiss sometimes
changes into mica schist, and through a gradual change in
the position of the laminae of mica, from that of parallel layers,
to being irregularly distributed, the gneiss often passes into
granite. Of the many varieties of gneiss, one deserves special
notice ; it has been called Porphyroid gneiss, and differs from
the characteristic gneiss in containing lenticular-shaped aggrega-
tions of feldspar in a fine schistose matrix. It is this variety
which has sometimes been called Eye gneiss.

2. Hornblende gneiss, differing from the characteristic gneiss in
having exchanged the scales of mica for crystals of hornblende,
arranged parallel with each other according to their longest axis-
Sometimes however, the hornblende has only partially supplanted
the mica, in which case intermediate varieties are formed between
the hornblendic and common gneiss. Through gradual disap-
pearance of both quartz and feldspar, the hornblende gneiss often
changes into hornblende schist, and sometimes through a change
in the structure of the rocks from schistose to granular, syenitic
and greenstone rocks are formed.

3. Granite of the usual composition. It often occurs as a very
coarse grained aggregation of dark red orthoclase with sparingly
distributed quartz and mica.

4. Mica schist, composed of quartz and mica, with a schistose
structure, and often containing garnets. It exhibits transitions
into hornblendic schist as well as into gneiss, (fee.

5. Hornblendic schist, forming transitions into greenstone, and
when the structure continues coarse grained, into diorite and
diabase.

6. Chlorite schist, consisting principally of chlorite and a little
feldspar ; here and there interwoven with fibres of hornblende.

7. Talc schist, mostly quartzose.

8. Quartz, as granular quartz rock, forming layers and zones ;
sometimes slaty, forming quartz slate.

9. Euphotide, consisting of brown diallage and white feldspar.

4: Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

Other rock« allied to this, have been discovered in a good many
localities, and described as gabbro.

10. Sfrjyentine, sometimes occurs in such considerable masses a&
almost to entitle it to be regarded as a member of the formation.
It is generally of a light yellow colour. The well known de-
posit of noble serpentine, occurring in the parisii of Snarum, comes
under this head.

11. Granular limestone, as marble, in layers and irregular
masses.

12. Conglomerates ^Ti^ breccia, mostly the latter. One is de-
scribed as " a granite-like combination of gneiss and granite,"
another " angular pieces of gneiss united by a gneissoid cement ; "
a third consists of " a gneissoid or granitic matrix, enclosing
small fragments of other gneissoid rocks."

Besides the rocks above enumerated, there occur numberless
varieti^^s, forming transitions between these types of rock, some of
which have been already adverted to. Sometimes, as Naumann
remarks, '* within small spaces, one and the same specific com-
position shews characters so quickly and so frequently changing,
than we soon- get accustomed to seek what is similar, only in the
specific identity of the constituents, and not at all in the way or
quantity in which they are combined." Beitriige zur Kentniss
Norwpgens, I. 188.

As the name Primitive Gneiss formation implies, the most
widely distributed rock is the gneiss, either in its characteristic
form or its varieties. The next most frequently recurring rocks
are granite, mica schist and hornblende schist, or rocks related
to these types. Some other rocks which I have enumerated, such
as chlorite and talc schists, gTanular limestone and quartzitc,
occur in comparatively small quantity, while the remainder of
those mentioned must be looked upon as uncommon occurrences.

As to the mode in which these rocks are associated with each
other, the whole of them are arranged in parallel layers or zones,
side by side, underlying or overlying each other. Hitherto no
regular succession of rocks has been marked ; they appear to be
interstratified with each other without rule. The aTanitic masses
are partly conformable with the parallel masses of the schistose
rocks, and partly occur irregularly. It has been remarked that
when the granite becomes more or less gneissoid, its masses are
regularly interstratified with the other schistose rocks; but where
the granite is totally free from all traces of gneissoid texture, the

171 Norway and in Canada. 5

form in wliich it occurs deviates more or less from that of layers
or beds. A remarkable instance of this is described by Keilhau,
as occurring near Norefield. There he saw a mass of granite,
which on the whole, was gneissoid and bedded, gradually change
at a certain place into a perfect granite, and then, in complete
uninterrupted continuity, pierce the rock in the form of a dyke.
Another instance is mentioned of a granite rock occurring in the
schistose rocks, " partly in very regular layers, partly as isolated
knolls and lumps, and partly asamultitudeof veins; which in several
places run through large portions of the neighbouring mountain
as a close net-work." In spite of this however, this granitic rock
showed in many places, a gneissoid structure. The relations of
the hornblende schists and greenstones resemble those of the
granite. The hornblende schist is regularly interstratilied with
the gneiss, mica schist and other rocks. Where its texture be-
comes less slaty, the layers or zones are not so continuous, but
form, in the direction of the strike, elongated nuclei, which, with
their hard masses, often stand out from the general surface^ and
thus form well distinguished peaks, such as Johnsknuden near
Kongsberg, and Fagerlidknatten south-east in Nedenses, In-
stances of crystalline amphibolites cutting the strata, occur
in the most northern gneiss district, but these appear to have been
formed much later than the gneiss. Mention is also made of a
diorite, or feldspathic hornblende rock, occurring in veins in a
granular mixture of quartz, feldspar and garnet, which latter rock
appeared to form a transition into the gneiss.

One of the most striking features seen in the structure of
this group of rocks, is the foldings and contortions, which the
strata exhibit in all the divisions of the group. This is observed
as well where no granitic masses are seen, as in the neigh-
bourhood of sucL On the high road from Hougsund to Kongs-
berg, and shortly before reaching the latter place, the traveller
can observe, without dismounting, the most wonderful bends and
contortions in the structure of the gneissoid rocks occurring there.
Scheerer, in describing these contortions, compares them to the
windings figured upon marbled paper. Naumann, in remarking on
the same phenomena on the north-west coast, expresses him-
self as follows : " It is usually said of gneiss, that it is
always clearly and regularly stratified. This assumes thai the
parallelism of the masses, of not too great extent, has a relation
to one plane ; that the positions of the planes of structure

6 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

within small distances, are only subjected to sciall, and gpnerally"
crradual and continuous alterations; that these do not frequently
shew sudden faults, or leaps in the most varied directions,
within a few paces. If we however examine much of the gneiss of
northern Bergenstift, we find exactly the opposite of this. Let
one only observe the profiles which the play of the waves keeps
so clearly and distinctly exposed on the rocky banks of Evenig-
fiord, Outer Dalsfiord, and especially of Sondelvsfiord. In what
absolute indefiniteness, in what indescribable confusion is the
structure of the masses exhibited ! And yet there reigns the most
unequivocal parallel structure within those thousand-fold mean-
dering windings of the single zones, in which no rule, no law is
evident, for the wonderful winding appear so lost in each other
that neither drawing nor description is able to follow them."

In the presence of such contortions, and of local foldings on a
larger scale, it is of course difficult to ascertain the general strike
of the strata. It seems however, that in all the principal gneiss
regions of Norway, the rocks run most generally north and south,
or at least N.N.E. and S.S.W., and this, although there are nume-
rous exceptions, appears to be the general strike. It seems also
that a generalisation is possible as well with regard to the dip, as
to the strike of the rooks constituting this gTOup. The strata are
almost always vertical or nearly so. This is the distinguishing
character of the formation, and, en passant^ let me remark the great
difficulty hitherto experienced in all theorizings as to its origin.
Horizontal and less inclined strata have indeed been remarked in
several places, but they must be regarded as exceptional. The
dip is almost always over 45°, generally 60® to 80°, while per-
fectly vertical strata arc often observable. These much inclined
strata may be traced continuously many miles on the above men-
tioned north-easterly strike, and taken together, strike and dip,
form a remarkable feature in the architecture of these rocks. As
Keilhau remarks, " there lies spread out before us an area of many
thousand square miles, which shews only in a few places, any other
than steeply inclined strata. In a great many, and indeed we
may say in the mo^t and greatest portions of this area, we see these
steep strata following some law of regular course. We find
them stretching away ten, twenty and often many more
geographical miles, according to the same lines, and it ap-
pears to us that there where new fields of strike beginj it is still
the same parallel masses which we have previously observed, and

in Norway and in Canada* 7

wbich have only changed the direction of their strike." Goea
Norvegica I, 375,

The landscape features in the gneiss region vary much. We
find in it sometimes tame hills, flat undulating plateaux, in which
only the valleys cut into it, have exposed more rugged forms ;
but sometimes we find zigzag ridges, sharp peaks, and other
remarkable mountain shapes. In the gneiss districts of the
south, long-drawn, broad massive mountain ridges are most
common, but on the north-west coast, the gneiss rises in rugged
and fantastic forms above the surface of the water, in the numer-
ous and intricate fiords of that region.

The mineral deposits of these districts are neither few nor un-
interesting. Some of these are worked, and produce silver, copper,
cobalt, nickel and iron, while others capable of yielding^ some of
these metals or other minerals, remain unwrought or undeveloped.
Foremost among the modes of occurrence of metals in this region,
must be noticed the so-called fahlbands. These are not exclu-
sively confined to the south of the Fields which run north-east-
ward across Norway at its broadest part, but it is there, and espe-
cially in the district of Buskerud, that they have experienced their
greatest development. From a point to the west of Kongsberg,
and near the junction with the so-called Telleraarken group, after-
wards to be described, north-eastward to Tyrifiord, or to where
the gneiss formation in Modum is overlaid by Silurian strata,
there occurs a series of parallel zones of rock, having the same
strike and dip as the rocks enclosing them, but distinguishable
from these by the decomposed appearance and reddish-brown
color which they present on the surface. This peculiar appear-
ance, to which, according to Bobert, they owe their distinguishing
name (from/aAZ or /aid, rotten, as the German miners, who first
were employed in their exploration, termed them,) is attributable
to the metallic sulphurets which they contain, and especially to
iron pyrites ; the ferric oxide and the sulphates produced in the oxi-
dation of this being the coloring and decomposing agents. The
quantity of metallic sulphurets necessary to produce this color-
ing and decomposing etiect, is exceedingly small, and indeed it is
sometimes scarcely possible to distinguish them, so finely dissem-
inated are they through the mass of the rock constituting the
fahlband. The sulphurets most generally present are common and
magnetic iron pyrites, and copper pyrites; although blende and
galena have both been mentioned as impregnating materials.

8 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

they are comparatively rare. Besides these, cobalt glance, co-
baltiferous arsenical, and iron pyrites, nickeliferous magnetic
pyrites, and argentiferous iron pyrites characterise peculiar lo-
calities. The impregnation seems to be altogether independent of
the nature of the rock ; gneiss, mica schist, hornblende schist, <fec.,
being alike found constituting fahlbands. The continuity of these
impregnated zones is frequently astonishing, some of them hav-
ing been traced in the direction of their strike, nearly north and
south, upwards of ten miles. Their course is often marked by
depressions in the rocks, caused by their greater proneness to de-
composition, and these depressions are frequently occupied by
marshes and lakes. The thickness of these bands varies
from a few feet to several hundred, and they have been fre-
quently observed to split up and throw oflf side bands, some
of which seem to connect with other similar zones. Although,
as in the case of the glance cobalt and cobaltiferous mispickel,
the impregnating material is sometimes the object of mining
enterprise, it is generally on the veins or irregular masses occur-
ring in these fahlbands, that the mines of the district are situ-
ated. Concentrations of metallic sulphurets or other minerals in
fissures parallel with or crossing the strata, are by no means un-
common, and in some instances have given rise to very profitable
mining. The metallic deposits which I propose to notice in con-
nection with those fahlbands, are the silver mines of Kongsberg,
the copper mines of Eker, the cobalt mines of Skuterud, and the
nickel mines of Kingerike, all of which are at present being
worked.

The rocks in which the fahlbands of Kongsberg occur are
gneiss, mica schist and hornblende schist ; other rocks, such as
granite, talc schist and chlorite-schist, granitic gneiss and green-
stones occur also in the immediate neighbourhood. Seven differ-
ent fahlbands or groups of fahlbands have been recognized as
existing in these rocks around Kongsberg, on every one of which,
at some time or other since the year 1623, more or less mining
has taken place. The two fahlbands which have been most mi-
nutely examined, have an average thickness, respectively, of 200
feet and 1100 feet. The impregnating sulphurets are iron pyrites,
magnetic and copper pyrites ; some of which appear to be argen-
tiferous, since the fahlband itself contains one-eighth of an ounce
silver per cwt. These fahlbands are intersected throughout the
whole extent, about six miles, by numerous veins containing gen-

in Norway and i? Canada, 9

erally calcspar, fluorspar, quartz arid metalJic silver, and more
sparingly, bitterspar, stilbite, prehnit/ harmotome, laumontite,
anthracite, fibrous pyroxene, chrysi Je, asbestus, actinolite,
axinite, adularia, and perhaps albite, auriferous silver, metallic
gold, horn silver, metallic arsenic, silver glance, red silver ore,
galena, blende, magnetic, iron, and copper pyrites. These cross
veins are exceedingly well developed within the fiihlband, but
beyond its limits they exhibit little distinctness or regularity, and
moreover are totally destitute of silver. They do not however,
while intersecting the fahlband, uniformly contain that valuable
metal ; on the contrary its occurrence there is almost as uncertain
as that of a valuable ore in any other lode, but only within the limits
of the fahlband can one expect to find it. The only rule which
seems to have been ascertained to exist with regard to its distri-
bution in the vein, within the fahlbands, is this — that where the
latter is most strongly charged with the impregnating sulphurets,
the vein at that point is richest in silver.

Such are the characters of the Kongsberg silver veins, striking
examples of the influence which the wall-rocks exert on the con-
tents of metallic lodes, and little liable to be neglected in theories
regarding the filling of such. The connection between the
pyritous impregnation of the fahlbands, and the argentiferous con-
tents of the veins, necessitates the deduction that the silver has
been derived from the pyrites, and as these have been found to
be arjxentiferous, the deduction assumes the character of a fact
itself. As to the mode in which the silver has been secreted
various opinions may exist ; the most probable appears to me to
be the following : —

Through gradual contact with the waters containing oxygen,
percolating through the rocks, the sulphurets, especially the
iron pyrites, were decomposed, sulphates of protoxide and peroxide
of iron, and sulphate of protoxide of silver being the results.
The first named salt would be produced in the earlier stages
of the decomposition, and removed ; the two latter salts, pro-
duced towards the end of the process, can exist simultaneously
in solution. On reaching the fissure. thus, in solution, they were
met by some agent capable of precipitating the silver of the sul-
phate. The agent which seems to me to have accomplished this,
is the sulphate of protoxide of iron, already alluded to as a pro-
duct of the decomposition of the pyrites. The precipitation of
silver salts by a solution of copperas, is a well known chemical rcac-

10 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

tion, the products being metallic silver and sulphate of peroxide of
iron.

The number of veins intersecting the fahlbands at Kongsberg
is very great indeed. While the mines belonged to the Danish
government, almost the whole of them received some share of
attention, an extensive but rather desultory system of mining
thus resulting. Since the Norwegian government undertook the
working of the mines in 1812, a different system has been
pursued, rather the other extreme, of working at too few points.
Only three veins, those of Kongen's Gruhe, Armen Gruhe, and
Gottes-Hillfe-in-der-Noth, have been the subject of raining ex-
plorations. However this may be, the mining of the last twenty
to thirty years has been eminently successful, and a source of
considerable revenue to the Norwegian government. On account
of the shortness of the veins, their exploration is pursued
chiefly downwards, but as yet, in going downwards, no dimi-
nution in richness has been observed. On the contrary, large
masses of metallic silver, similar to those which obtained for,
the mines their celebrity in earlier times, have been recently
found. These large masses are of course the exception, the
most of the silver which is produced being separated from
the vein-stone, in breaking it up, after its extraction from the
mines. A large portion is also obtained in the stamping and
washing of middle and poor ores at the mines, and in the same
operations considerable quantities of more or less argentiferous
schlichs and shmes are produced. The whole of these products
are farther treated in the smelting-house in Kongsberg. The
poorer slimes and schlichs, containing from f to 1^ oz. per cwt.,
are smelted with about one-and-a-half times their own weight of
a basic slag, containing very much ferrous oxide, from a subsequent
smelting, and about half their own weight of iron pyrites. The re-
sulting products are a regulusof sulphuret of iron, containing 3j
or 4* oz. of silver per cwt., and slags, containing -^-^ oz. silver, which
are set aside as useless. The raw regulus is roasted' in heaps, and
then smelted with one-and-a-half times its weight of rich slags
from subsequent operations, containing from 8 to 9 oz. of silver.
The regulus from this operation, as it is drawn off from the fur-
nace into the crucible outside, is there stirred up with molten
lead, poor in silver. From this results argentiferous lead (which is
used over again in the same way, until it contains from 8j to 10
per cent silver,) and a lead regulus (sulphurets of iron, lead and

in Norway and in Canada. 11

silver), containing of silver, 14 oz., per cwt. The slag from this
second operation is what is used in the raw smelting. The
lumps of metallic iron formed at the same time, and called iron
swine, are worked up with the lead regulus, by being smelted
together with the litharge and the hearths from the cupellation of
the argentiferous lead. This operation produces lead containing
only from 1^ to 2 per cent, silver, which is used in the treatment
of the argentiferous regulus, as described above.

The lead regulus from this last smelting, which contains from 6
to 20 oz. of silver per cwt. is again smelted with lead,
and its silver content is thus brought down to 4 or 6 ounces. It
is then roasted and smelted with its own weight of poor slags
containing 6 to 8 oz. of silver, when there results lead containing
4 to 5 lbs. of silver per cwt., which goes to the second operation ;
together with slags which are used in the first operation ; and a
copper regulus, containing 1 per cent silver, and 20 to 30 percent
copper. The latter is repeatedly smelted and treated with poor
lead, until it contains not more than J oz. silver per cwt., when
it is roasted and smelted to black copper.

The lead from the second operation, containing from 8^ to 10
per cent of silver, is cupelled in a German cupelling hearth, in which
operation, hot air is used with great advantage. The resulting silver,
and the rich silver ores from the mines, are refined in a furnace some-
what like the English cupelling furnace, the hearth of which rests on
a well-arranged carriage, on which, after the operation is completed,
the hearth is lowered on the one side, and the silver poured into
the moulds standing prepared for it. The sweepings of this re-
finery, and the furnace hearths, are carefully smelted in a
small furnace, and the products worked up, according to their
contents in silver, in one or other of the operations already des-
cribed.

The Eker copper mine consists of an irregular mass of iron and
copper pyrites, situated on the strike of a fahlband, part of the
impregnated rock of which is found to be so richly impregnated
with copper pyrites as to be worth smelting. The ores are
brought up by hand-picking at the mines, to about four per cent.
They are then carted about four miles to the smelting house, where
they are roasted in heaps. The roasted ore, with the addition of
a little limestone, is smelted in shaft furnaces. The resulting re-
gulus, of about 16 per cent, is concentrated by being again roasted
and smelted, yielding a regulus of from 40 to 50 per cent. This

12 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

when again roasted and smelted produces black copper, which,
being refined on the small hearth to gahr copper, is sold in Chris-
tiania or Hamburg.

The cobalt mine of Skuterud occurs on a fahlband, which has
been traced about five miles, the rock being a quartzose mica
schist. Layers of impregnated hornblende and actinolite schists
are also of frequent occurrence. The rocks run north and
south, and have a dip nearly vertical; sometimes inclined slightly
to the east, sometimes to the west. In these rocks the following
metallic minerals have been observed ; magnetic, iron and
copper pyrites, characterising the fahlband ; cobalt glance, co-
baltine, cobaltiferous mispickel, magnetic iron ore, graphite, and
molybdenite are found more sparingly, impregnating the fahl-
band at certain places. These latter minerals do not occur
in veins, but they are sometimes associated with quartz. They
seem to form rather a succession of small layers, running parallel
with the foliation of the rock. They are by no means generally
distributed through the fahlband, and it has only been by taking
out the whole mass of this, that the cobaltiferous portions
have been jrot at hitherto. The fahlband itself has a breadth

o

of from one to five fathoms, and it seems, toward the north,
to be divided into two difi"erent bands, separated from each
other by a large mass of dead rock. The mines were discovered
in lt''72, and have since been uninterruptedly worked, notwith-
standing an extraordinary decrease in the value of the products.
The treatment of the ores, as at present pursued, is as follows.
The rocks are broken and sorted into rich and common
ores. In the treatment of the smalls by means of a fall
wash-work, washed ore of a very small size is produced, besides
the above sorts. The whole of this ore is so finely disseminated,
that it can only be advantageously treated by stamping and
washing. The stamping mill is of the construction used in
Saxony. The resulting stamp meal and slimes are concentrated
first on percussion and then on sleeping tables. The rich ore
treated in this manner yields per ton 86^ lbs. of fichlich, contain-
ing 17.96 lbs. metallic cobalt. The common ore yields per ton
29 lbs. of schlich, containing 1.88 lbs. of cobalt. The poorer
schlichs are further concentrated by being partly roasted, and
smelted with an addition of some limestone and slag. The
resulting slag is set aside. The regulus (sulpharseniurets of
iron, cobalt and copper,) containing about 22 per cent metallic

in

NorwaTf and in Canada, 13

cobalt, is roasted in reverberatory furnaces, and being mixed with
the richer schlichs, which have also been calcined in the same
way, forms what is called zafFre, containing about 30 per cent
cobalt oxide. This is sent to market in England, where it is ma-
nufactured into cobalt oxide and smalt. A small quantity of the
former product is manufactured on the spot in the humid way,
but this quantity does not exceed one sixth of the whole amouct
of the cobalt oxide here produced in manufactured and unmanufac-
tured products. '^)'

The fahlbands in the neighbourhood of Ertelien, and Ringerike,
have not been so carefully studied as those of Kongsberg and
and Skuterud ; nevertheless it admits of no doubt, that the nickel
mines of the former locality occur on impregnated zones of
rock like the fahlbands. The deposits are irregular masses of
magnetic iron pyrites containing two per cent of metallic nickel.
Although a definite veinstone is not observable, it appears from
the presence of selvages in various places, that the deposits par-
take of the nature of veins. Besides the nickeliferous pyrites,
copper pyrites is produced at the mines in some quantity, but
so contaminated w^ith the former, as to be altogether useless
as a copper ore. Occasionally, beautiful crystals of iron pyrites
(pentagonal dodecahedrons), have been found, containing two
per cent of metallic cobalt. The nickeliferous pyrites is sorted
out at the mine, very pure, almost entirely free from rock.
It is then roasted in heaps, and smelted in a shaft furnace
with the addition of a little limestone. The resulting products
are a very heavy slag, with is a basic silicate of ferrous oxide ; a
regulus of sulphuret of iron, containing about six per cent nickel,
and iron swine, which collect in the interior of the furnace during
the smelting, and interfere very much with its proper working.
The regulus is again roasted in heaps and smelted, a more con-
centrated regulus with thirty per cent of nickel, resulting. The
regulus, as well as the iron swine produced in both smeltings, are
farther refined on a hearth similar to that used on the continent
for refining copper. A farther scorification of iron takes place in
this operation, and a regulus with fifty per cent of nickel and fifteen
per cent of copper results, which after being ground to powxler, is
sent to market. It is mostly sent to Hamburg and sold to Ger-
man nickel refiners. These mines were formerly wrought, and the
pyrites roasted for the manufacture of copperas ; it is only during
the last fourteen years that they have been wrought for nickel.

14 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

Besides the four establishments here described, which are
in full operation, there are a good many deposits connected with
fahlbands, which are either abandoned, or have not as yet been
worked. Of these the fallowing may be mentioned — the cobalt
mines of Svartefield, very similar in character to those of Skuterud,
the copper works in Sognedalen, and on Kobberbergselven.
There are also numerous localities of pyrites containing small
quantities of nickel or cobalt, or both. The magnetic pyrites from
Hoiassen contains three per cent of nickel and six tenths per cent of
cobalt; that from E-ustand, six tenths per cent of nickel and one per
cent of cobalt ; that from Olafsbye one per cent of cobalt, and the
iron pyrites from Satersberg one per cent of cobalt.

There are however other deposits of pyrites in this formation,
whose connection with fahlbands is more uncertain. Such
localities for instance are those of Meinkier Grube, containing
copper pyrites, nickeliferous magnetic pyrites and cobaltiferous
iron pyrites ; and Steenstrup's Kiesgrube, on Lyngdalselven, con-
taining the same minerals. Dahll* looks upon these as contact de-
posits, and connects them with the intrusion of so-called gabbro.

Closely allied in nature to the fahlbands above described are
certain other zones of impregnated rock, occuring in this forma-
tion. The impregnating material, however, is magnetic iron ore,
the bands containing which scarcely possess such a length in
the direction of the strike, as the fahlbands. Moreover the
magnetic iron ore, besides occurring in this finely divided state,
forms considerable beds in the impregnated zones referred to. It
is from these deposits that the iron works of Sweden and Norway
are supplied with the material from which their celebrated iron is
prepared. These deposits are of frequent occurrence in the south
of Norway, especially in the neighbourhood of Arendal, where
there exist eighteen different beds of ore, which well repay the
cost of working them. They are situated in a narrow straight
zone, which runs parallel with the coast for a distance of six
miles. The prevailing rock is gneiss, which graduates into mica
and hornblende slate. The ore is magnetic oxyd, usually
without any admixture of ferric oxide. The minerals most fre-
quently accompanying it are augito, hornblende, garnet, epidote,
calcspar, and the three essential constituents of the gneiss, espe-
cially mica. Besides these, about thirty other minerals have
been mentioned as having been found in the deposits, but these are

* Om Kongsberg's Erts District ; Christiana, 1860.

in Norway and in Canada, 15

of rarer occurrence. The masses of ore appear flattened,
almond-shaped, and drawn out parallel with the foliation of
the enclosing rock. In the direction of the strike, they thin out,
or branch off and disappear. Their average thickness is from
two to six yards, but it sometimes reaches twenty yards. The
iron works of Ulefoss, Fossum, Froland, Nas and others, are all
more or less dependent on these deposits for their ores. The si-
tuations of these iron works seem to have been chosen, less with a
view to economically transporting the ore, than to taking advan-
tage of the magnificent water powers, which exist everywhere in
Norway. The fuel is charcoal, mostly from pine, and it has also
to be carted considerable distances. The blast furnaces used, are
partly similar to those used in Sweden, and partly to those used
in Germany. They are thirty feet high, from four to four and a
half feet wide at top, and from seven to eight at their widest part.
The percentage of metallic iron contained in the mixture to be
smelted, ranges from 25 to 42 per cent, and the average production
of raw iron from a furnace is 2^ tons daily. l| tons of charcoal
are consumed in the production of one ton of iron. The refining
takes place on what are called " frisch hearths," and hammers are
used in the further mechanical treatment of the resulting lumps of
malleable iron. The iron produced, is like the Swedish, celebrated
for its purity. It is shipped to Hamburg, and from thence
mostly to America.

Large quantities of titaniferous iron ore occur at Ekersund and
Snarum ; that from the former locality contains 43 per cent of ti-
tanic acid. Phosphate of lime has also been worked and exported
from the neighbourhood of Kragero. With these I must close
this sketch of the economical minerals of the primitive gneiss
formation of Xorwa}', and turn to compare it in its various features
with that of Canada.

The parallelism of the Laurentian formation of Canada with
the gneiss of Scandinavia was long ago pointed out by Sir "William
Logan, and in the more recent reports of the Geological Survey,
especially those of 1853-56, we find the features of the Canadian
formation fully described. The rocks there occurring are essen-
tially the same as those of Norway. Keilhau's characteristic
gneiss corresponds to the granitic or micaceous gneiss of Canada,
and the hornblende gneiss of Norway is the syenitic or hornblen-
dic gneiss of the Laurentian formation. Even the e^je gneiss
variety appears to exist here, and from the description, to be syno-

1 6 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

nymous with the reticulated gneiss. In corroboration of this I take
the liberty of quoting the following remarks of Sir William
Logan: — " In the Reports of the Survey, the Laurentian rocks
have been described in general terms, as gneiss, interstratified
with important masses of crystalline limestone. The term
gneiss, strictly defined, signifies a granite with its elements,
quartz, feldspar and mica, arranged in parallel planes, and con-
taining a larger amount of mica than ordinary granite pos-
sesses, giving to the rock a schistose or lamellar structure.
"When hornblende, instead of mica, is associated with quartz and
feldspar, the rock is termed syenite, but as there is no distinct
specific single name for a rock containing these elements in a
lamellar arrangement, it receives the appellation of syenitic
gneiss. Gneiss rock then becomes divided into two kinds,
granitic and syenitic gneiss, and the word gneiss would thus ap-
pear rather to indicate the lamellar arrangement than the min-
eral composition. Granitic and syenitic gneiss were the terms
applied to these rocks in the first Reports ; but as granite and
syenite are considered rocks of igneous origin, and the epithets
derived from them might be supposed to have a theoretical re-
ference to such an origin of the gneiss, while at the same time
it appears to me that the Laurentian series are altered sedimen-
tary rocks, the epithets micaceous and hornblendic, have been
given to the gneiss in later Reports, as the- best mode of de-
signating the mineral composition and lamellar arrrangement,
without any reference whatever to the supposed origin of the
rocks. (Report 1853-56, pp. 49 and 50.)

Further " The space between them (the bands of limestone)
is occupied by gneiss, the banded structure of which is vis-
ible in a vast number of places, but a large part of the rock is
coarse grained ; the feldspar being in individuals, frequently at-
taining an inch and sometimes more in diameter, while the mica-
and the quartz, often accompanied by hornblende, and the former
sometimes replaced by it, are distributed among the feldspar in
such a manner as to give a reticulated aspect to the surface.
Beds of this character are sometimes thin, but when thick and
massive, which they usually are, they might upon a first inspec-
tion be mistaken for igneous instead of altered rocks. Upon a
careful study of the case, however, it will be perceived that this
reticulated structure is accompanied by an obscure arrangement
of the meshes of the net-work, into parallel lines, which are found

in Norway and in Canada, 17

to be conformable with tbe more distinctly banded portion of the
strata." {Ibid, p. 9-10.)

Besides gneiss, the following rocks are mentioned as occurring
in the Laurentian system. A crystalline aggregate of feld-
spar and quartz, granite in veins, mica and hornblende schists, chlo-
ritic gneiss, quartz-rock or quartzite, hypersthenite, serpentine,
crystalline limestone, greenstone, hornblende rock, besides syenite
and porphyry, which latter intrusive rocks however belono- to a
later period. These rocks are, on the whole, the same as those
occurring in the primitive gneiss formation of Norway. Granite
however does not seem to occur iu masses running parallel with
the other rocks, unless we include under this denomination the
above mentioned crystalline aggregate of feldspar and quartz.
The hypersthene rocks described by Mr. Hunt in his inte-
resting Report 1855, seem to be of a character similar to
those occurring in Norway, and there described as gabbro and
euphotide, however much the latter rocks, in their true types,
differ from hypersthenite. The confusion existing among mine-
ralogists regarding the nature of these rocks seems still to prevail^
notwithtanding the able and exhaustive work of Mr, Hunt on the
subject. As a proof of this, I may refer to a recent paper by
Dahll on the ore district of Kongsberg, where there is a rock
described as gabbro, which is composed of " violet or brownish
labradorite and dark green hornblende. The color is that of the
hornblende, consequently dark. Diallage, which is known by its
shining lustre, is perhaps oftener present than has hitherto been
demonstrated ; ilmenite is characteristic ; and magnetic pyrites oc.
curs frequently ; with these, a little brown mica is frequently re-
marked." Oni Kongsberg^ s Erts District, p. 16, Gabbro is
commonly described as " a crystalline, granular or sometimes
schistose mixture of feldspar or saussurite with diallage orsraarag-
dite ;" Cotta : Gesteinslehre, p. 53. It is diflScult to conceive how
the above described rock resembles gabbro ; unless as Dahl furth-
er remarks concerning it, "labradorite is decisive of gabbro."*

(Editor's note, by T. Stebry Hunt.)

* The name of gabbro, originally employed by the Italians to desig-
nate a diallagic serpentine, is, by most modern authors, applied to a
rock composed of a tricliuic feldspar (such as labradorite) with pyroxene.
When the latter is of the variety called hypersthene, the rock takes the
name of hyperite or hypersthenite, but when it assumes the form of dial,
lage or of smaragdite, the name of gabbro is given to the rock. In smar-
Can, Nat. 2 ^ Vol. VU.

18 Macfarlane on the Frimitive Formations

The serpentines of the Laurentian formation, are described by Mr.
Hunt as of a paler colour than those of the raetamorphic series*
He failed to detect either nickel or clirome in them,and in his exam-
ination of a serpentine said to be from Modum in Norway, (proba-
bly that of Snarum, from its being associated with ilmenite), these
metals were also absent. This is consequently another point
of resemblance between the serpentines of the Laurentian formation
and those of the Norwegian gneiss formation, distinguishing both
of them from the serpentines of the metamorphic series. The crys-
talline limestones of the Laurentian formation appear to be much
more frequent, and more regularly interstratified than those of the
Noiweo-ian gneiss formation, and this is one of the features in
which a difference is remarkable between the two formations.
In the Laurentian, as in the Norwegian gneiss formation,
the gneiss is the prevailing rock, and interstratified with most of
the rocks above mentioned. The strike of the strata of the Lau-
rentian formation is most generally N. E. and S. W; or W. N. E-
and S. S. AV. and the dip much inclined, though perhaps gene-
rally less so than ihose of the Norwegian gneiss formation.

With regard to the economic minerals of the Laurentian form-
ation, the existence of falilbands similar to those of Norway seems
to be uncertain. Still we find in the Geological Reports, descrip-
tions of red-weathering rocks, which bear no slight resemblance
to them, and should they be found to possess the character of
fahlbands, a search for economic minerals in connection with
them, would most like'y be successful, because the metalli-
ferous area is limited and well defined. The colour of the rock
would assist in tracing it along its strike, and any veins cros-
sing it or occurring in it would be easily recognised. Whether
the pyrites of Daillebout occurs in connection with a fahl-

agdite we have an intimate mixture of pyroxene with hornblende, afiford-
inga transition to rocks composed of triclinic feldspars and hornblende ;
ia other words to diorite and diabase. Those rocks which consist of
such feldspars, with diallage or hypersthene, I arrange under the generic
name of dolerite. When the feldspar in these predominates, and is gran-
ular or compact, including masses of diallage, the rock has been in-
correctly called euphotide. This name was originally given by Haiiy
to a mixture of diallage or smaragdite with what he called saussurite,
a mineral which by modern lithologists has been strangely confounded
with compact feldspar, from which it is distinguished by its much great-
er gravity and hardness, and is, as I have elsewhere shown, a compact
zoisite or epidote. The true epidotic euphotides however sometimes in-

in Norway and in Canada. 19

band is uncertain ; looking to the character of the mineral, which
contains nickel and cobalt equivalent to 0*55 per cent of the
oxides of these metals, I think it is very probable. The cobalti-
ferous pyrites of Brockville seems, on the other hand, to be an in-
dependent deposit, seeing that it occurs in such extraordinary
quantity. I found the compact variety to contain metallic cobalt
corresponding to 0.50 per cent cobalt oxide. This result was con-
firmed by Mr. Himt, who found O'o2 per cent. In the neighbour-
hood of the copper mine of Escott, I found no traces of anything
resembling fahlbands, so that I am inclined to parallelize this
locality with the pyritiferous deposits above described as oc-
curring at Meinkier and Lyngdalselven, independent of the fahl-
bands. In no particular does the Laurentian formation so much
resemble the primitive gneiss formation of Norway, as in containing
those enormous deposits of magnetic iron ore, which occur in the
townships of Madoc, Marmora, Crosby, Hull, (fee. In extent
however, the Canadian deposits far surpass the Norwegian.
In like manner, the deposits of titaniferous iron of Bay
St. Paul far surpass .in extent those of Snarum and Ekeisund.
The phosphate of lime of Burgess and Elinsley, differs from the
deposits of the same mineral in Norway, in being associated with
crystalline limestone, and in occurring in far greater quantities.

I have thus endeavoured, as far as my knowledge of Canadian
geology permits, to parallelize the various features of the Lauren-
tian and primitive gneiss formations. Doubtless many who are
more intimntely acquainted with the geology of this country will
be able to recognize further points of resemblance, and in view of
this possibiUty, I have described the Norwegian formation at
greater lengih. I shall be guided by the same considerations in
describing the two other groups of rocks which I have yet to
compare with their Canadian equivalents. I cannot however

elude triclinic feldspars, and thus pass into diallagic dolerite or gabbro.
The feldspathic rocks of the Laurentian system, above referred to, consist
of labradorite, andesine, or some relatedfeldspar, and often include pyrox-
ene, which from a variety like sahlite, passes into hyperstheneaud dial-
lage, giving rise to hypersthenite, and to the incorrectly named gabbro
and euphotide of most modern lithologists. The rock from Kongsberg,
as above described by Dahll, except in the substitution of hornblende
for pyroxene, agrees closely with a variety of diallagic dolerite common
in the Laurentian series. For further illustrations of this subject,
see a paper on Euphotide and Saussurite, in Silliman's Journal of Science
for March 1859.

20 Hev. A. F. Kemp on the Shore Zones of

leave tliis division of my subject, without referring to one impor-
tant difference which exists between Norway and Canada, in re-
gard to the economic minerals of this group.

In the former country, despite its comparative poverty, those
deposits are well developed. In Canada they remain dead and
unproductive. Why they should be so, it is difficult to say.
Canada has the advantage of Norway in having richer mineral
deposits, better means of transport by its canals and railways, and
a much greater command of capital. With regard to fuel, both
charcoal and imported coal, it is equally as well situated as Nor-
way, and although labour is much dearer than in the latter
country, there is every prospect of this disadvantage becoming
less considerable. The severity of the winter presents no greater
hindrances to mining in Canada than in Norway,. and Canada is
rapidly acquiring the skilled labour essential for successful min-
ing. In view of these considerations therefore, one may hope
that the great accumulation of economic minerals in Canada will
soon become one of her most important sources of national

wealth.

{Tote continued.)

ARTICLE l\.— On the Shore Zones and Limits of Marine
Plants on the North Eastern Coast of the United States.
By the Rev. Alex. F. Kemp.
(Readbefore the Botanical Society of Canada, at Kingston.)
While spending a vacation, during the month of August, 186],
at Peak's Island, in the State of Maine, and Bay of Casco,
it was a special and very profitable amusement of mine, to note
the botanical features of that region of country. The season was
too far advanced to find many of the beautiful land plants which
have their special home in the Northern United States. The
Kahnia angustifolia was out of flower, and its branches covered
with seed. The fragrant Myrica cerifera w2iS m a similar con-
dition. The Rosa blanda, though here very abundant, was out
of season. Gerardia maritima was in fine condition, and in one
or two swampy localities near the shore, very abundant. Along
with it, but more generally diffused, Spiranthes gracilis, grew in
beautiful profusion, and shed forth its delicate lily fragrance.
In one locality I found the pretty blue Trichostema dichotomum,
and in another the curious little Pine weed Hypericum Sarothra,
Other plants common to Ccinada and the United States flourished

Marine Flanti on the N. E, United States. 21

in much profusion. I also collected, and figured in my note
book, fifty one species of the larger fungi, some of them very
beautiful and curious. The chief field of my researches was,
however, in the department of marine plants. These were speci-
ally interesting to me as I had not before had sufiScient opportu-
nity of personally examining their peculiar habits and growth in
the United States. I first sought out the best localities in which
to collect good specimens ; afterwards I made a collection of all
the plants that could be found at this season of the year. I was
somewhat disappointed at the limited number of species which
the coast afforded, and believe that, from some cause or other,
there was a short crop that season of many of the more delicate
and beautiful forms. The Fuci were, however, in great perfec-
tion, and astonishing profusion. The rocks were everywhere
clothed with their dark and mottled drapery, and on the shores
of every little bay they lay in dense aud matted beds, in which
were mingled such other species of Algae, and of animals, as in-
habit the rocks of the sea coast.

It occurred to me that it would be a pleasant and an interest-
ing occupation to note the lines or zones upon the rocks and
shores at which the various plants found a special home, and
the limits to which they were accustomed to travel. A very cur-
sory survey convinced me that each plant had its favorite shore
region within which it grew to perfection, and beyond which it
either ceased to grow, or became dwarfed in its form. I was
aware that all the Hand Books on the Algce had noted the special
localities of each species, whether it grew at high or low water
mark, at half tide or in deep water ; but T was not aware that in
any of the books, shore lines and limits of plant growth had been
made the subject of special treatment. This subject may be re-
garded as a minor branch of the important enquiry as to the
geographical distribution of plants. It is akin to the phenomena
of the vertical distribution of land plants, on the slopes and peaks
of mountains. Perhaps, something interesting may come of the
observations which leisure and opportunity permitted me to make
at Peak's Island. I am far from thinking that my knowledge of
the subject is yet so complete as to entitle me to speak with any
degree of confidence upon it. All scientific observers know that
a first survey of any subject is almost necessarily imperfect in its
details, and that these can only be fully worked out by repeated
examinations under every variety of circumstance. A beginning

22 Rev. A. F. Kemp on the Shore Zones oj

must however be made of the induction of particulars, if any sa-
tisfactory conclusions are to be reached, in this as in every other
branch of scientific enquiry. What I have to say at this time
on this subject, imperfect though it must be, may yet, as a be-
ginning, and so far as it goes, be suflSciently accurate to afford
rehable information to those who have not made this branch of
botany their study; it may also, as a starting point, lead to fur-
ther observations in the same field on the part of those who are
adepts in the sub-kingdom of Sea- Weeds.

The tides along the Atlantic shores of the United States rise
about fifteen or twenty feet, and in their range atford a fine field
of research for the naturalist. This tidal shore I would divide into
six distinct zones.

I. The Drift or beach Zone.

II. The Ulva Zone.

III. The Fucus Zone.

IV. The Laminaria Zone.
V. The Chondrus Zone.

VI. The Deep sea Zone.

I. The Drift Zone.

The first of these is not properly a zone of vegetation. Nothing
grows in it, to my knowledge, excepting millions of sea lice. It is
however important to the amateur collector. Here the waves drive
up masses of all the kinds of sea-weeds which the coast affords.
After a storm from the ocean no better field of research can be
resorted to for fine specimens of Algre. Ladies who are in search
of " mosses " for ornamental work, need go no farther to find all
that they want, than to this line on the beach. Timid collectors
too, who fear to wet their feet in the pools, or to hazard their
limbs on the slippery rocks of the lower shore, will find enough
to fill their wallets at zone number one. I note it chiefly for the
benefit of young collectors, and to point out to them, that in pro-
secuting the study of marine plants, they may, through the po-
tent agencies of the waves and the tides, do so without the least
inconvenience to themselves.

II. The Ulva Zone.

I call this zone by the name of the beautiftil green Ulva^ be-
cause this genus of plants has its chief habitat in the warm
pools and on the rocks which are found a little below high water
mark, 'the whole order Ulvacece^ indeed, flourish best in this
locality over the wide geographical limits within which it is

Marine Plants on the N. E, United States. 23

found. Here almost all its species grow to their greatest per-
fection, both as to quality and quantity. A reason for this may
be that the bright green color which distinguishes most of the
species requires a larger amount of sun light for its production
than the olive, and red-colored plants require which inhabit lower
zones and deeper water. The color of those plants of the order
Ulvacece which travel into deep water, is for the most part of a
darker hue than tbose which grow in shallow places. I have
also noted that the color of specimens from the tropical and subtro-
pical regions is more brilliant and permanent than is that of plants
iu the colder regions of the north. Some of the species of this or-
der have besides a special love for fresh water, either in the shape
of land drainage or of shallow streams. Enteromorpha clathrata
for example may often be seen travelling far up fresh water
rivulets.

In this zone Ulva lotissima is found in great abundance and
beauty. Wherever pools of water are left by the tide this plant
finds a happy home ; rejoicing in the heat and light of the sun it
spreads out its broad ruffled fronds, with a gentle undulating mo-
tion in the water. It is often gemmed with glistening glubules
of eliminated oxygen, thus purifying the wa^ er and contributing
both to the health and shelter of the innumerable animals which
live in the same pools. I did not find Ulva Linza here, although
it is found abundantly on other parts of the coast. The Ulva
passes readily down into deeper water, and maybe found on rocks
and in the pools of the third zone, but although it grows well
there it is yet neither so beautiful nor so luxuriant as it is in its
own natural home.

The most abundant genus however of the order Ulvacea? to be
found in this zone is that of Enteromorpha. I found the four
species, E. intestinalis, E. comjjressa^ E. clathrata and E. Hojj-
kirkii with their various forms growing in profusion in the pools,
and on the shores on places where fresh water was ])resent. The
upper part of their fronds float on the surfaces of the pools, after
the manner of fresh water confervse, and are, like them, inflated
by the oxygen which their fronds rapidly eliminate. The api-
cies of these plants are frequently blanched and much decayed
from exposure, their color is also of a lighter and more yellowish
tinge than is that of the Ulva. The last species E. Hopkirkli is
rare both in America and in Europe, and is readily known by the
confervoid articulation of its ramulae. Along with these, an 1 firmly

24 Rev. A. F. Kemp on the Shore Zones of

adhering to the rocks, clumps of Cladophora rupestris, C.uncialis^
and C. Jiexuosa were found. Masses of the bright green and gelat-
inous Hormotrichum Younganum were also found adhering to the
edges of the rocks. These plants have a considerable range of
growth and some of the Cladophorse may be found in fine condi-
tion as far down as the lower limits of the third zone, but there
. they assume a deeper green color and stronger texture. Entangled
among other plants, the dark green crisp and tortuous Ghcetomor'
pha litorea finds also a home. This plant has however a consi-
derable range of growth, and is not specially abundant in any
place only it does not grow in very deep water or far down on
the shore. Of the £Jnte7'omorpha it may be remarked that it is
very troublesome to the fishermen, as it infests the bottoms of the
boats, and greatly retards their progress in sailing. It adheres to
them with great tenacity, and in an incredible short space of time,
covers them with a perfect foi-est of long green fronds. The
only remedy for this pest is frequent scraping, burning and tar-
ring.

In this second zone there are found, besides, stragglers from the
zone beneath.

The chief and most notable of these is a dwarf species of
Facus. It grows in the corners aud crevices of the water pools,
and travels very little beyond the Ulva Zone. In its dry state it
has much the appearance of a Bictyota, but in its fresh condition
it is thick and feathery as a Facus. It may be a dwarf form of
Fucus vesiculosus^ but in no case did I either find air vessels or
terminal receptacles upon it. It had always the same appearance :
a plain narrow frond with a slender midrib frequently bifurcating
in a dichotomus manner. Its colour is a pale olive. Hervey
does not notice this plant in his Nereis Borealis but in his Manual
he describes a plant of the same kind as a variety of Fucus vesicu-
losus under the name of F. Balticus, stating at the same time
that it is probably a depauperised condition of F vesiculosus. It
may be so, but I was not able to trace the connection between the
two by intermediate forms. I am disposed to think that it is enti-
tled to a specific name, and that it may retain that of F. Balticus,
Dwarf specimens of Fucus nodosus are also found creeping up
into this zone, but regarding these no doubt can be entertained.
Their linear form and occasionally inflated fronds sufiiciently
indicate their connection and origin. The rocks are also covered
with a soft velvety green substance apparently made up of a

Marine Plants on the N. E. United States, 25

species of a confervoid plant and a very small Diatom. These I
"was not able to examine in their fresh state under a high power
of the microscope, and in the dry state I find the confervoid plant
altogether broken up and without form.
III. The Fucus Zone.

This third zone I would divide into three distinct sub-zones :

(1) The nodosus.

(2) The vesiculosus.

(3) The furcatus.

(1 ) The first or uppermostof these is almost exclusively occupied
with Fucus nodosus. This plant grows to great perfection on the
Atlantic coast of America. It has a range as far south as New
York Bay. Every where it is found within this region fringing
the shores and the rocks near high water mark. For its proper
growth it requires evidently a measure of dryness, a good deal of
light, and showers of rain. It is the hardiest of all the Fuci, and
may be found in a depauperised state high up in fresh water
creeks, or in rivulets. It is a hard dark olive and ribless plant»
easily known by its slightly petioled and club-shaped branchlets,
and by the large bladder-like air vessels formed by the inflation
of its fronds, with which it is crowded. On this coast it covers a
belt of shore of from one to three yards in breadth. It is fre-
quently covered with Ceramium ruhrum. In manyplaces so densely
does this parasite grow upon it, that it gives quite a feature to
the plant.

(2) In the next sub-zone Fucus vesiculosus grows in great
profusion. It seems to retain more water among its fronds than
the previous more leathery plant. It is easily known by its
broader ribbed frond, its air vessels, occurring frequently in paii-s,
and by the viscid character of its terminal receptacles. This
plant is also.infested with Ceramium^ rubrum\\\%OY)iQ of its many
varieties, with C.fastigiatum and sometimes also with the parasitic
plants Elachista fucicola and Ectocarpus siliculosus. It occupies a
space on the shore of from one to three yards in breadth, com-
pletely covering with its wet and slimy fronds, the rocks upon
which it grows.

(3) Fucus furcatus. — Occupies the chief place in this sub-zone,
and is unquestionably the most beautiful and graceful of the three.
Harvey remarks in his Nereis Borealis, that he is unacquainted
with this species. We wonder at this, as it is a very abundant
and remarkable plant on the coast of Maine. He describes it on

S6 Rev» A, F* Kemp on the Shore Zones of

tlie authority of Aghardh under this name " as having a com-
** pressed stipes expanding into a linear dichotomus ribbed /rowc? ;
*' margin very entire ; air vessels none ; receptacles elongate,
** linear, flattish repeatedly forked, three inches in length, scarcely
** thicker than the frond, and tapering towards the apices." This
plant is found at the ordinary low water raark and is scarcely
«ver altogether out of the water. It retains a great deal of water
in its meshes, as the fronds, lying flat upon one another, do
not permit the water to escape. It is of a lighter olive color in
the water than the other plants of the genus. It measures from
1 to 2 1 feet in length, and is remarkably strong and firmly at-
tached to the lock by Its discoid root. Waving gracefully in the
rising or falling tide, or lashed by the angry waves, it presents an
interesting and beautiful appearance. Under its folds a variety
of Chondrus^ like that described as C, Norvegicus in Hervey*s
Manual, is found in great abundance, adhering to the rocks. The
•curious plant called Gigartina mamillosa^ but which seems in all
its features more allied to Chondrus than to Oigartina, finds
a secure habitation under its dense folds. On the lower part of its
stems Machisfa fucicola grows in great profusion affording a
byssoid ornamentation to that portion of the plant.

There can be no doubt that these three plants occupy always
the same relative positions to one another in which they are here
found. The line of division may not, it is true, be so well marked
as are the lines of garden plots ; to some extent indeed they
mingle at their boundaries ; but there are considerable centrcg
in which they are found in great luxuriance, and in which no
other allied species grow. F. nodosus is the hardiest of all the
Fuci, and from its thicker and more leathery character can best
withstand the drying influences of the atmosphere and the sun.
These are indeed the conditions in which it grows to its fullest
dimensions, F. vesiculosus is more liable to be afi'ected by light
and heat than nodosus, and while it requires a measure of these
for its full growth, it can yet do with less than its neighbour.
F.furcatus again is more tender than either, and is less able to
resist the influence of the atmosphere. It is consequently from
its position two thirds less time out of the water than F. nodosus
and one third less than F. vesiculosus. In all probability it will
also contain fully more iodine than either of these plants, and
would form a better manure for the fields.

Marine Plants on the N, E. United States. 27

Within this zone there are, on the Atlantic coast, and wherever
rocks abound, frequent pools of water more or less large and
deep, in which may be found many of the hardier species of deep
sea plants. In the lower belt ot this zone and contiguous to F.
furcatus, I found Chondrus criapus^ the "well known Cariyeen
Moss growing in much luxuriance, having crept up thus far
from its natural home. But the plant which more generally filled
these pools was Halosaccion ramentaceum. In every variety of
form it abounded there, but frequently in so depauperized a state,
as to indicate that it w'as not exactly in its native home. Speci-
mens of the largest size to which this plant attains I did not
often find, but in one form or another it was present in great
abundance. The curious and pretty plant called Cystoclonium
purpurascens^ together with Hypnea musciformis, had here
also their natural home and grew in great perfection. They too to
some extent are deep sea plants, but for the most part they covet a
home in the rocky pools of the shore. Chordaria fiagelliformis
threw out its long filamentous fronds in every pool of this zone,
and in many crevices of the rocks left bare by the tide. Here
also Rhodymenia palmala the dulse of America, with its blood
red frond, grew in great beauty and abundance both on the
rocks and as a parasite on other Algae. But one of the most
striking inhabitants of this zone is Chaetornorjyha melagonium.
Its long pea-green filaments afford a pleasing variety of colour*
It grows often solitary but is not unfrequently clustered together in
considerable bunches, Cladophorce and Rhodymenia palmata, and
Ulva latissima, commonly growing as parasites on the ends of its
fronds. Occasionally a bunch of Delesseria sinuosa is found in the
deeper and more shady pools. Once only I found a little plant of /?.
alata and Euthora cristata, but these are stragglers and seldom flou-
rish out of deep water. The inflated fronds of Asperococcus sinuo-
sus, a deep sea plant, were occasionallyfound. In the more sheltered
places, large patches of Corallina officinalis grew very luxuriantly.
Its horny pinnate branches, with the reddish tinge of its natural
state, render it a very pleasing object in the water. This curious
calcareous plant has a wide range of growth, but it does not tra-
vel higher up on the shore than the second line of the Fucus
zone. It is however found at a considerable depth in the sea.
I constantly found it attached to the roots of the large deep sea
plants, and in some places it grows at the depth of fifty fathoms.
A Gigartina^ probably G. tenax, is also found inhabiting these

28 Rev. A. F. Kemj) on the Shore Zones oj

pools in great abundance, and quite at home in them. It is a
rigid dark red plant bifurcating twice or thrice. A curious plant
called Furcellaria fastigiatia is also a characteristic denizen of
this zone. Its soft texture and forked apices are its characteristic
features. Over the three belts of this zone and attached to the
rocks in considerable masses, the very gelatinous Pori^hyra laci-
■ nata is found in perfect condition. This is the laver of the Scotch
shore. It is a most widely dififused plant, but chiefly inhabits the
northern waters; in southern latitudes it becomes delicate and
small.

The third line of the zone is perhaps the finest field of any on
the shore in which to search for growing specimens of the pre-
vailing shore plants, and the more hardy inhabitants of the deep
sea. Time and labour spent here will always be rewarded by the
discovery of either unknown species, or of new varieties and
habitats of those already known.
IV. The fourth zone is that of the Laminaria.

This is the largest kind of marine plants. The species never
leave the water if they can help it, and are found in the pools which
touch upon low water mark. They often grow in the channels
and grooves of rock, up which the water, at low tides, is generally
flowing at the rise and fall of every wave. The Laminaria digi~
tata which grows here, either rooted to the rock or to some large
shell, such as Mytillus edulis^ with its strong fibrous roots, attains
sometimes to a great size. Its stem is not generally more than
two or three feet in length, sometimes it is much shorter, but the
frond which grows upon it is frequently from four to six feet long
and split up into numerous laminje. This is a, strong leathery
plant, of a dark olive colour, and conspicuous for its size among
the drift along the whole northern shore of America. L. saccha-
rina is next to it in size, with its variety latifolia, but its stem is
somewhat shorter, and its frond narrower and longer, and its mar-
gin frequently waved and fringed. These long oar-like plants
are very abundant, and are remarkable for the density of their
structure. When tossed about by the strong waves of the ocean,
they lash the shore with great force. When driven ashore they
generally bring the piece of rock or the shell to which they are at-
tached with them. They are the favorite haunts of innumerable
Sertularice, Bryozom and Sponges. The beautiful dulse, or Body,
menia pahnata^ very generally grows in luxuriant profusion upon
their stems. The smaller species, L. Phyllitis and L, dermaiodea,

Marine Plants on the N. E. United States. 29

are also found along with these in all stages of growth. The Sea
Colander or Ar/arum Turneri is here, too, a well known plant. It
grows sometimes to the size of from ten to twelve feet. For the
most part it is a deep water plant, but it yet frequently appears on
the shore among the Laminaria. Only dwarf specimens are how-
ever found here, showing that this is not its natural home. I
picked lip a small plant of this species which had an anomalous
peculiarity in the shape of a trilaminate frond. " From the cen-
" tre of its laminae along its whole length there projects a wing
" or additional lamina, making with the two halves of the true
" leaf a third lamina" This peculiarity has evidently arisen from
the splitting up of one of the laminae of the frond. I would infer
this from the fact that the lamina to which the third one is in-
clined, and to which it is united at the midrib, is thinner than the
lamina on the other side of the midrib. The perforations also on
the two associated laminae correspond in many respects, although
the mother lamina seems to have grown considerably since the
separation of one half of its substance took place. I am parti'
cular in noting this, as I find in Harvey's Nereis Borealis a Lam-
inaria described as L. trUaminata on account of a peculiarity of
identically the same kind as that which I have noted. The des-
cription of that species is taken from Olney's hst of the Rhode
Island plants, published in the proceedings of the Providence
Franklin Society. Harvey is doubtful about it, and had he seen a
good specimen of the so called plant, he would at once have detected
its origin, and refused it a place as a distinct species. It can be
considered as nothing more than an anomalous form. The most
interesting and curious of the plants that are found in this belt is
the Alaria escidenta. It is found on the Atlantic shores of Ame-
rica, from Newfoundland to Cape Cod, and is abundant on the
west coast of Scotland and Ireland. " It has a root of many
grasping fibres, a stem naked at the base and cylindrical, from two
to four lines in diameter, and from eight to ten inches in length.
On its lower half there are numerous stemless leaflets, above which
the stem is winged on each side, and passes gradually into the
midrib of a foliaceous frond which is from one to twenty feet or
more in length." — Harv. It is of a bright olive colour, and cover-
ed over with a very adhesive mucous. Unlike most others of
the order to which it belongs it adheres closely to paper. Its
natural home seems to be about low water mark, among the rocks
of the shore. It is in many respects a beautiful plant, and its

30 Rev. A. F. Kemp on the Shore Zones of

bearded stem gives it a striking and characteristic appearance.
The whole breadth of this zone does not exceed one yard.

V. The fifth zone is that of the Chondrus.

Perhaps this belt is scarcely entitled to a separate place.
It blends so much with the preceding as scarcely to be dis-
tinguishable from it. Nevertheless Chondrus occupies so con-
spicuous a place here, and drives out of this, its special
retreat, almost all other plants, that it appears entitled to
be considered as possessing a separate territory or home. I
was not aware of the special locality of this plentiful and
useful plant, until I had examined the shore at extreme neap
tide. I then found much to my" astonishment that the lowest
part of the shore rocks which the tide had left bare, but which
were only bare at very low water, were deserted by almost every
other species, and that Chondrus alone covered every rock with
a densely matted carpet. So closely did the plant grow that not
a particle of the rock could be seen. Only in the interstices of
the rocks did some plants of Laminaria, Alaria^ and Chondaria
grow, all else was in undisputed possession of Chondrus. This
region is apparently its central home; here it retains its nor-
mal purplish-red colour, and is in all its parts regularly devel-
oped. It is however a great traveller. Specimens of it may be
found in pools far up ou the shore, even among the green Ulva,
and it extends its growth far out into the deep water. This is the
only really useful plant on the coast. It is very gelatinous, and
is considered njiirishing as an article of food, it makes very good
hlanc mango, r.d en being mixed with other materials is said to
be capital .eed lor cattle and pigs. For invalids it is often recom-
mended. Thrf article is imported from Europe to this country,
blanched and tiee Irom salt, and is kept by most druggists. It
grows in such immeasurable abundance along the whole Atlantic
coast of ximsrica from Nova Scotia to Long Island, that it seems
like bringing coals to Newcastle to import it to this country.

VI. The Deep Sea Zone.

Under cover of the deep blue waters of the ocean the finest
and most beautiful of the marine plants are generally to be found.
Many of the larger plants attain also their largest dimensions in
the deep waters. A large number of species belonging to the
order Laminareacece find their natural home in the deep sea.
One remarkable plant of this order is found growing only in deep
water ; and for this locality its structure is specially fitted ; I re-

Marine Plants on the N. E. United States. 31

fer to L. Imigicrucis. This is a noble plant. Its stem is fre-
quently eight to twelve feet long, slender at the base as it springs
from its root of clasping fibres, it gradually widens upward to an
inch in diameter, where it is hollow or tubular, and thence taper-
ing to the apex, terminates in a broadly expanding oblong lan-
ceolate frond, beautifully waved at the margins and obtuse at the
termination. The colour of the stem is a pale yellowish brown,
and of the lamina a beautiful pale greenish oHve. I measured
one noble specimen which had attained to the dimension of 32
feet, the stem of which was one inch in diameter at its thickest
part, and the lamina about 2 feet in breadth. It is peculiarly a
North American species; and although it is found as far south as
Cape Cod, it is there much stunted in its growth, and very dif-
ferent in size and texture from specimens that are found on the
northern shores. In Europe it is scarcely known to grow beyond
the limits of the Arctic Sea, whence water-worn specimens occa-
sionally reach the coasts of Scotland, and the north of Ireland,
By the force of the waves it is frequently detached from its place
of growth, and its hollow stem enables it to float easily upon the
water. The greenish olive of its lamina shows that it requires a
good deal of sunlight to bring it to perfection ; that therefore it
may get as much of this element of its life as possible, its long
and hollow stem seems to have been provided. It is generally
covered with parasites both vegetable and animal. Some of the
more delicate deep sea plants will commonly be found growing
upon the lower parts of its stem. At Peak's Island I found
upon it the beautiful and delicate Delessaria alatciy and frequently
the stem was fringed along its whole length with Ectocarjpus
granulosus. Amateurs looking for deep sea plants, would do
well to direct their attention to the stems of drifted individuals of
this plant. The prevailing deep sea plants of this region are
Rodomela sub/usca, Delesseria simwsa, D. alata, and D. denii-
culata. The two former in great abundance, the two latter are
rather rare. Enthora cristata, the analogue of the European
Plocamium coccinium^ is among the most beautiful and common
that is driven on shore from the deep. Phyllophora memhrani'
folia is also found although by no means common. Ptilota serrata
and P. elcgans are frequently cast ashore in abundance. They
inhabit the whole northern shore, and abound in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. Growing upon Zostem marina I also found Ectocar-
pus siliculosuSj Poly svfhonia fibrillosa, and, Punctaria tenuissima.

32 Rev. A. jP. Kemp on the Shore Zones of

In sandy bays, in water of from 1 to 4 fatlioms deep, the curi-
ous cord-plant Chorda Jilum grows abundantly, and is from
30 to 40 feet long. It is a hollow and chambered plant,
and in its young state is covered with green byssoid fibres.
In the same category may also be noted the beautiful Grinellea
Americana^ frequently found on this coast, the analogue of the
brilliant WormshioUia sanguinea of Europe. It is peculiarly
American, and grows abundantly in Long Island Sound, and
New York Harbour.

Other plants might be added to these which we have noted^
as inhabiting the various belts of the shore, and the deep waters
of the North American coasts. These only occurred to me in
my investigations at Peak's Island. Were however these zones
of distribution to be permanently maintained, in works on the
marine plants, they would greatly facilitate the work of collecting.
Further researches would increase the number of plants which
make their special homes in each, and would enable us to deter-
mine the habits of growth of those species whose special homes
we have succeeded in locahsing. It would farther be interesting
to trace the deep sea limits of the various plants on this coast,
after the manner of Forbes' researches in the Mediterranean.
Little or nothing has yet been done in this branch of plant dis-
tribution in this country. The difficulties attending such inves-
tigations, on the boisterous and rocky coast of Eastern America,
are very great, but it is to be hoped that some of the zealous bo-
tanists of America, with means and leisure at command, may turn
their attention to this interesting department as their special
study.

To sum up our work, we present the following classification of
the plants noted in the several zones.

I. The plants found in the Drift Zone are a collection of all
kinds.

II. The plants in the Ulva Zone are : —

Ulva latissima.
Enteromorpha intestinalis.
" compressa.

" clathrata,

" Ilopkirkii,

Cladophora rupestris.
" uncialis,

" Jlexuosa.

Marine Plants on the N. E, United States, 33

Chaetomorpha Utorea.
Hormotrichum Younganum,
Fucus Balticm.
in. The plants in the Fucus Zone are: —

(1) Fucus nodosus.

(2) " vesiculosus,

(3) " furcatus.
Asperococcus sinuosus.
Chordanajlagelliformis,
Ectocarpus siliculosus.
Elachista/wcico/a.
Rhodomela sub/usca.
Corallina officinalis.

Bhodymenm palmata. •

Hypnea mvsciformis.
Cystoclonium purpurascens.
Gigartina tenax^

" mamillosa,
Halosaccion ramentaceum.
FuTceWsLTia. fastigiata. '
Ceraraium rubrum.

" fastigiatum,
Porphyra laciniata.
Chadophora rupestris.
Chaetomorpha melagonium,

IV. The plants of the Lammaria Zone are :—

Agarum Turner i,
Alaria esculenta,
Laminaria digitata.

" saccharina.

'* Fascia.

« Pkyllitis.

" dermatodea,

V. The plants of the Chondrus Zone are :—

Chondrus crispus.
Larainariae,

VI. The plants of the Deep Sea Zone are :

Laminaria longicrucis.
Punctaria tenuissima.
Ectocarpus granulosus.

34 Dr. C Smallwood^s contributions to

Eutbora cristata.
Ptilota serrata.
" elegans.
Polysiphonia Jibrillosa.
Phyllophora memhranifolia.
Delesseria sinuosa.
" alata.
" denticulata.
Zostera marina.

ARTICLE TV .— Contributions to Meteorology for the year 1861
from observations taken at Isle- Jesus Canada East. By
Charles Smallwood, M. D. LL. D. Professor of Meteoro-
logy in the University of McGill College Montreal.
Tte following observations are a continuation of the Annual
Report of the results of the observations taken at the Observatory.
The means are reduced from tri-daily observations taken at 6 a. m.,
2 p. m. and 10 p. m. The whole of the observations are all re-
duced to the usual standards, and the necessary corrections depend-
ing upon any peculiar construction of the instruments have been
applied. It may be further stated, that the instruments are in the
same position in which they have stood during a long series of
years, and they are all subjected, at short intervals of time, to
certain manipulations and corrections, so as to secure, as far as
possible, accuracy ; many of them are self-registering, and every
means have been adopted to prevent either terrestrial, zenith or
solar radiation on the bulbs of the thermometers ; extra hours are
set apart for observing any unusual phenomena, and a more particu-
lar attention has been directed to every sudden and great fall in
the barometric column as indicating any unusual atmospheric
wave, and also on the sudden fall of the thermometer indicating
any extreme degree of cold as during our " cold terms^'' for the
purpose of comparing observations here with those taken in any
distant part of the world, and which may have a bearing on the
theory of the formation of storms.

A seismometer has been added to the other instruments for
the purpose of ascertaining the direction and amount of elevation
of the earthquake wave. The more than usual frequency of late
of earthquakes in this neighbourhood has led to the placing of
the seismometer, so as to indicate and to estimate any such in-
teresting phenomena.

Meteorology for the year 1861. 35

Barometer. — The highest reading of the barometer during the
year occurred at 9.30 p. m. on the evening of the 23rd of January,
and indicated 30.687 inches; the lowest reading occurred on the
274;h day of May at 1. 45 p. m. and indicated 28.883 inches, giv-
ing a yearly range of 1.804 inches ; several sudden and great
changes occurred during the year both with arising and with
a falling column. The j5rst remarkable wave was on the 4th of
March, when a very sudden fall took place ; at 6 a.m. the ba-
rometer stood at 30.454 inches, and it fell in 24 hours 0.780 of
an inch and continued falling until 2 p. m. of the 6th day when
it attained a minimum of 29.450 inches; it then continued to rise,
and at 10. p. m. the 7th day attained a height of 30.398 inches,
showing a sudden rise of 0.948 of an inch. On the 15th of March
a rise of 0.342 of an inch took place in 8 hours, and a like sudden
rise occurred on the 30th day of 1.230 inches in 24 hours. Another
sudden rise took place on the 28th of September at 6 a. m ; the
mercurial column indicated 29.276 inches, and in 24 hours it rose
to 29.999 inches, showing a rise of 0.623 of an inch, and it conti-
nued rising until it attained a maximum of 30.3 15 inches ; another
sudden depression of 0.200 of an inch in 8 hours occurred
on the 22nd of October, and a corresponding rise on the 24th
day, also in 8 hours, of 0.409 of an inch. In November the mer-
cury was as usual subjected to several fluctuations ; the highest
crest of the wave occurred on the 1st, 10th, and 20th days, and a
corresponding trough took place on the 3rd, 16th, 24th and 30th
days. In December, from the 12th to the 21st day, the mercurial
column indicated great fluctuations, falling from 30.341 inches,
to 29.746 inches, rising again to 30.137 inches and then again
falling to 29.600 inches and again rising to 30.191 inches, again
falling to 29.611 inches and attaining on the 21st a maximum of
30.269 inches ; a sudden rise occurred on the 27th day, the column
rising 0.293 of an inch in 8 hours. The mean barometric pres-
sure for the year w^as 29.737 inches, showing a decrease of 0.046
of an inch compared with the mean of last year, but an increase of
0.061 of an inch when compared with a series of years. The fol-
lowing tables show the mean reading of each month and also the
monthly range of the barometer in- inches ; the mean yearly range
was 1.093 inches.

36

Dr. C. Smallwood^s contributions to

Monthly Means,

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

January

29.983

May

. . 29.721

September..

29.849

February . . .

29.750

June

.. 29.720

October . , . .

29.876

March

29.878

July

.. 29.734

November . .

. 29.714

April

29.882

August . . .

.. 29.353

December. . .

29.892

Monthly Range.

January . .
February .
March . . ,
April ....

Inches.
1.350
1.484
1.401
1.381

Inches.

May 1.349

June 0.815

July 0.637

August 0.770

September .
October. . .
November .
December .

Inches.
1.023
1.014
0.902
0.994

The lowest, range (or the least difference) was in July, and
this has held good for a series of years. January for a long period
shows the greatest range, but the month of February 1861 shows
a greater range than January ; the mean range for a series of
years has been found to be 1.032 inches, which is 0.060 of an
inch less than the yearly range of 1861. January shows the
highest mean of the year and June the lowest. The mean reading
of the barometer for the Winter Quarter was 29.883 inches, for
the Spring Quarter 29.827 inches, for the Summer Quarter 29.769
inches, and for the Autumnal Quarter 29.813 inches.

Thermometer. — The mean temperature of the air for this year
varies but very slightly from the mean temperature of a series of
years, but the mean temperature indicated 1°89 degrees less than
the mean temperature of last year (1860), and 0°16 of a degree
only more than the mean annual temperature of a long series of
years; the mean temperature for the year 1861 being 41°72.
The highest reading was on the 9th of June at 3 p.m. and indic-
ated 99°7 degrees ; the lowest reading was at 6 a.m. on the morn-
ing of the 8th of February, and indicated — 37°1 degrees (below
zero), giving a yearly range or climatic difference of 13 6° 8 degrees.

The warmest day of the year was the 10th of June, the mean
temperature of the day was 81°1 degrees; at 11 a.m. the thermo-
meter stood at 87°8 degrees, and at 3 p.m. 96°0 degrees, and at
4 p.m. 95°8 degrees; at 10 p.m. it stood at 76°7 degrees and it
fell to 60°3 in the night, which was clear and calm, the terrestrial
radiator indicated 57° degrees. The coldest day of the year was
the 8th of February, the mean temperature indicated — 28°5
degrees (below zero) ; below is a record of the cold term of January
and February.

Heterology of the year 1861. 37

January 11, 1861. 6 a. m.— 23M (

[below zero.)

8 " — 23^0

it.

9 « _19M

«

Noon — 17^0

it

2 p. m.— 10^6

it

4 « — U\8

u

6 p. m.— 17^0

u

8 " —20°. 4

u

10 « —20°. 6

it

January 12, 1861. 6 a. m.— 34°. 9

u

8 « —34°. 7

u

10 « —24°. 6

((

Noon —14° -4

u

2 p. m. — 5°.l

«

4 " — 7°. 3

a

6 *• —14°. 9

u

8 « —17°. 4

u

10 p. m— 17°.9

u

Midnight— 20°. 4

u

January 13, 1861. 6 a. m.— 26°.6

u

8 " —20°. 8

a

10 " —12°. 5

u

Noon — 5°.l

a

2 p. m.— 1°.6

u

4 " — 1°.0

11

6 " —11°. 2

a

8 " —14°. 3

u

10 *' —16°. 9

u

Midnight— 19°. 2

li

January 14, 1861. 6 a. m.— 13°.8

li

8 " —10°. 4

u

10 " — 3°.l

((

Noon + 2°.0

(above zero.)

The thermometer was 81 hours and 45 minutes below zero.

The February cold term exceeded somewhat the above temperature,

and was as follows : —

February 8, 1861. 10 p. m.— 21°.3

(below zero.)

Midnight— 34°. 6

(t

6 a. m— 37M

'c

9 " — 32°.l

u

38 Dr. C. Smallwood's contrihtctions to

Noon —22*^.2

[below zero.)

2 p. m.— 14^.1

((

4 " — 19°.0

((

6 « —20°. 9

It

8 « —19^.8

ti

10 " —190.5

«

Midnight— 20°. 4

u

6 a. m.— 24°.0

u

9 « «_20° . 1

u

Noon +1°1

11

The thermometer was for 56 hours

below zero.

The following table shows the Mean Temperature for each month.

January.... 10°.43May 51°. 86

February... 18°. 25 June 65°. 83

March.'.... 21°. 94 July 67°. 66

April 38°. 99' August 66°. 84

September. 5 8°. 06

October 46°. 64

November... 33°. 60
December... 20°. 54

July was the warmest month, but was 6°92 degrees colder than
the mean temperature of J uly for a series of years.

The temperature of the Winter Quarter was 12°28 degrees, for
the Spring Quarter 34°29 degrees, for the Summer Quarter 66°77
degrees, and for the Autumn Quarter 46°10 degrees ; the tempera-
ture for the same period of last year (1860) was Winter Quarter
12°59 degrees, Spring Quarter 45°55 degrees. Summer Quarter
6'7°63 degrees, and Autumn Quarter 46°49 degrees. A thermo-
meter sunk 18 inches in the ground showed a temperature of, in
May 49°9, in June 59°8, in July 60°0, in August 66°0, in Sep-
tember 58^0, in October 53^0, and in November 4Y°4' The
range of temperature or climatic difference exceeded by 19*^2
degrees the range of 1860 ; below is a table of the climatic differ-
ence for each month of 1861 : —

January 66 .5

February 90°. 3

March 65°. 5

April 55°. 3

May 42°. 9

June 59°. 6

July 51°. 8

August 4 3°. .3

September... 44°, 6

October 42°, 4

November 28^.6

December ... 56^.9

February shows an excessive range of temperature ; this was
owing to the excessive cold term of that month; November shows
the least climatic change, and this is rather unusual for November ;
the range for November 1860 was 5 9 "^4 degrees, the mean range
for November for a series of years being 6l°l degrees ; the 1st
frost of the Autumn occurred on the 5th of September ; a sudden
fall of temperature took place in March, at 2 p.m. on the 16th

Meterology of the year 1861. 39

day the thermometer stood at 36°7 degrees, and in 24 hours it
fell to — 5°0 degrees below zero, showing a difference of 41°7
degrees in that short period ; this sudden change was accom-
panied by a rise in the barometer and a high wind from the west;
December showed a cold term but of short duration ; the following
table shows the temperature : —

Dec. 20th, at 9 p.m.— 0.0

Midnight — 10.0 (below zero)

21st, 6 a.m.— 10.1 "

11 " __ 3.2 «

Noon — 0.5 "

0.20 0.0 *'

This was the Ist cold term of the winter 1861-2.

Humidity of the Atmosphere. — The mean relative humidity
for the year was 0.774, saturation being equal to 1.000.
The following table shows the relative humidity for each month :

January 752|May 7 70 September. . . .804

February 755June 735 October 843

March 768 July 765:N'ovember. . . .787

April 780|August 736 December .. . .796

June was the driest month of the year, but July has been the
driest for a series of years. Complete saturation occurred only
once during the year.

Rain. — Fell on 106 days, amounting to 46.701 inches; it was
raining 531 hours and 14 minutes, and was accompanied by
thunder on 16 days ; the number of days on which rain fell exceeded
by 13 the number of days of rain of 1860, and by 112 hours 14
minutes, but was 5 days less than the number of rainy days in
1859, but exceeded by 33 days the amount of days of rain com-
pared with a series of years ; the amount of rain which fell in 1859
was 50.035 inches, and in 1860 was 48.132 inches, and the
amount of rain in 1861 exceeded by 3.697 inches the average
amount compared with a series of years ; a very heavy rain
storm occurred on the 27tb May, it began at 4.25 p.m. from

h.m. Inches.

the E.N.E. and at 4.45 the fall registered 1.700
4.50 {wind veered to ^¥.) 2.066
4.53 2.333

4.55 2.433

5.00 2.483

and ceased at 5.10 and equalled 2.48C inches,

*o

Dr, C. Smallwood^s contrihutiont to

which fell in 45 minutes. The Riviere des Prairies, a branch
of the Ottawa, rose .very high during May, and a like rise has
not been witnessed since 1848.

The following table shows the monthly amount and the duration of fall :

Amount. Time

Amount- Time.

January. .
February,
March . .
April . . . .
May ....
June . . . .

Inches.

0.100

0.761

1.Y56

2.921

8.642

4.868

h. m.

4.10'july

1*7.251 August

52.35|September.
60.42|October...
49.32jNovember.
56. 18 December.

Inches
10.188
1.950
4.816
5.370
1.023
1.306

h. m.
79.49
12.31
66.50
69.30
32.52
31.00

July shows a very large amount of rain but is not the greatest
amount on record here for July, but exceeds by 4.456 inches the
amount of last July (1860), but is less by 2.026 inches the amount
of rain which fell in July 1859, which was the most rainy July
on record here ; this was accompanied by a very heavy storm and
showed an amount of rain equal to 6.374 inches, and the rivers in
this neighbourhood rose at this time nearly 2 feet ; the rain storm
lasted 45 hours and 40 minutes.

Thunder and lightning occurred on 16 days, the yearly mean
for a series of years is 14 ; last year (1860) thunder only occurred
on 11 days; there were 43 cloudless days only during the year
1861, the average for a series of years being 57. The prevailing
clouds were Cumuli Stratus and a rather larger amount of Cirri
Stratus, giviog rise to haloes; and there were but 123 nights suit-
able for astronomical purposes ; this is less by 20 than the number
of nights in the year 1860. Snow fell on 45 days amounting to
99.53 inches; it was snowing 365 hours and 54 minutes, which is
less by 1.77 inches the average amount for a series of years, but
is 38.26 inches less than the amount of snow which fell in 1860,
and is 40.57 inches less than the amount which fell in 1859.
The last snow of the winter 1860-1 fell on the l7th of April, and
the Ist snow of the autumn fell on the 24th October. "Winter
did not fairly set in until the 23rd of December.

Evaporation. — The amount of evaporation from the surface of
water during the 6 months which are recorded is 16.90 inches,
which is nearly 1 inch less than the mean amount ; the amount of
evaporation also from the surface of ice was somewhat less than
the average.

Heterology of the year 1861. 41

The greatest intensity of the SurCs rays was 104^3 degrees,
which is less by 6^3 degrees than the intensity for the year
1860, and is 12°Y degrees less than the intensity for the year
1859. The lowest point of the terrestrial radiation^ was — 39°4
degrees (below zero.)

Dew. — The yearly amount of dew was below the usual mean
or average ; an apparatus has been used for a short time for the
purpose of ascertaining the hour at which dew begins to fall and
when it ends, and also the amount, and it is believed will lead to
some interesting results in this department of research ; the appa-
ratus is self-registering and leaves a permanent impression.

Wind. — The most prevalent wind during the year was the N. E.
by E. and the least so E. by N. ; the next in frequency was the W.
and W. S. W. and a good deal of S. E. winds prevailed ; below is
a table of the amount of horizontal miles of wind for each month :

MiJes.

Miles.

MUes.

January. . .

6380.10

May ....

. . 4989.20

September.

3447.48

February . .

5549.95

June . . . .

.. 6067.93

October . . .

3664.29

March . . . .

5437.69

July....

. . 4499.68

November.

4142.30

April

3565.12

August . .

.. 2736.05

December..

5816.99

giving a total for the year of 55296.78 miles linear, which is
11083.26 miles more than the amount for the year 1860 ; the
mean velocity for the year was 6.312 miles per hour, which shows
an increased velocity of 1.270 miles per hour for 1861 over that
of 1860. June was the calmest month last year and indicated only
2905 . 36 miles ; a tornado passed over Montreal on the 9th of July,
but was little felt here ; on the 10th of August a very heavy hail
storm passed near this place over St. Laurent and Montreal, doing
considerable damage to crops and buildings; there were several
storms of wind during the year preceded by rain and a low
barometer.

The Aurora Borealis, was visible at observation hour on 42
nights ; a bright display with considerable magnetic disturbance
occurred on the night of the 1st of September, the same period
that the splendid display which caused so much sensation over
the world occurred last year.

The Zodiacal Light was frequently seen ; it was generally bright
and well defined.

Solar and Lunar Halos have been more than usually frequent
during the year. A remarkable solar halo occurred on the 12th
of August, when the temperature had fallen considerably during

42 Dr, €. Smallwood's, contributions to

the night. The thermometer at 6 A.M, stood at 46°0Y degrees.
The terrestrial radiator had indicated a temperature of 41^03
degrees. The wind at 10 A.M., (mean local time) was from the
N.E. by E., with a clear sky, from which time light cirrus clouds
began to form in the higher region of the atmosphere, passing
from W. to W.S.W., in a direction contrary to the lower current
of wind (N.E. by E.) At lOh. SSm. a slight halo was seen round
the sun, and at lOh. 45m. it presented a very rare and beautiful
spectacle. The sun, bright and ivhite, was in the centre of a
halo or circle of 44 degrees in diameter, its lower or southern
limb being about 37 degrees above the horizon ; this circle was a
bright halo of light, white and bright at its outer edge, and
which was shaded inwardly and towards the sun of a pale orange
colour, and an occasional tint of blue and red ray nearly 2 de-
grees in breadth. Both the lower limbs of this halo on the edge
next the sun were more broad than elsewhere, giving the appear-
ance of a crescent on each side. This halo or bright circle was
filled in as it were with a dark ground, consisting of cirrus
clouds, which passed quickly and constantly across from a west-
erly direction.

Another circle of a white colour and less bright, was also seen.
The circumference of the wheel was in the centre of the bright
halo, or more properly in the sun itself ; the ring extended be-
yond the zenith, and exceeded the brighter one considerably in
diameter. Another smaller circle was enclosed between the bright
northern limb of the halo and the last mentioned circle, which on
approaching its periphery separated somewhat, and crossed each
other from right to left, extending east and west for a short dis-
tance, and the breadth of these circles were from 1 J- to 2 degrees.

Lower down, nearer the horizon, on either side of the halo,
were arcs or broken portions of an imperfect circle, somewhat
resembling inverted rainbows, with distinct prismatic colours
which varied both in brightness and extent. These appearances
decreased and ceased at 12h. 40m. P.M. The wind veered into
the S.E. by E. with an increase of temperature and a cloudy sky.
The following day at 11 A.M., another halo appeared round the
sun, but unattended with any of the peculiar appearances as
above noticed.

The other solar and lunar halos and coronae, although more
frequent than usual, offered no peculiarities.

Meterology of the year 1S61. 43

Observations on the Solar Spots still form a part of the re-
cords at this place.

Ozone. — The observations have been continued by means of
the calico ozoneometer, which is kept moving by clock work, so
as to indicate the variable amount, and has furnished very inter-
esting results, as also the action of the coloured rays of light and
polarized light and its development.

Atmospheric Electricity. — The tri-daily observations have been
taken with Pelletier's and Ramerhausen's apparatus as heretofore,
but these observations are far too extended for a short notice.

Comets were seen, Thatcher's in May ; a bright one 30th June,
and a smaller one, October.

Earthquakes. — A smart shock was felt on the 11th of July at
9 hours 3 minutes P.M., local time, it lasted for 20 seconds. The
wave passed from N.N.W. to E., and another slight shock was
felt in October. A register will for the future be kept in con-
nexion with the seismometer.

The Lunar Eclipse of the iTth December was not seen, being
obscured by clouds.

Crows (Corvus corojia), first seen on the 27th of February.
The song sparrow (^Fringilla melodia), first heard 4th of April.
Wild geese [Anser Canadensis), first seen flying W. on the 29th
April. Swallows [Hirundo riifa), first seen 23rd April. Frogs
[Eana fontanalis), first heard the 24th day. Shad (Alosa pros-
tabilis), first caught 30th May. Fire flies {Lampyris corusca)^
first seen 19th June. Snow birds {Plectrophanes nivalis), first
seen iVth of November. Crows left on the 7th day of November.

Currants and gooseberries in leaf on the 16th May. Wild
strawberries in flower, 24th. Dandelion in flower, 23rd. Cur-
rants and gooseberries in blossom on the 24th. Lilac in blossom
on the 3rd of June. Apples on the 4th. Chokecherries in
blossom on the 6th of June.

The magnetic observations carried on at this Observatory, will
form a separate paper for future publication.

Observatory, Isle Jesus, 22nd January, 1862.

44

Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals andBirds

ARTICLE IV, — On the Mammals ami Birds of the District of
Montreal By Archibald Hall, M.D., L.R.C.S.E.

(Continued from page Z()% Vol VI.)
BIRDS,

Species that winter in the district of Montreal, or that during that
period visit it.

Falco Palumbarius.

Pyrrbula Enucleator.

Strix Virginianus.

Strix Funerea.

" Cinerea.

" Nyctea.

" Nebulosa.

*' Otus.

Parus Palustris.

" Tengmalmi.

Corvus Corax.

Emberiza Nivalis.

" Cor one.

Picus Villosus.

-" Canadensis.

" Pileatus.

Picus Pu'bescens.

Tetrao Umbellus.

" Tridactylus.

" Lagopus.

Tetrao Canadensis.

Bombycilla G^rrula.

Emberiza Lapponica.

Linaria Minor, probably.

Table giving a comparative view of the number and colour of
the eggs of the species that incubate in the district of Mon-
treal as far as ascertained.

Geiius.

Species.

Colour of Eggs.

(

F. Sparverius

4 to 5 brownish yellow, mottled

Faleo '

P. Oolumbarius....

brown.

2 to 4 white, mottled with red.

^gnila. ...... a

F. Chrysaetos

F. Leucocephalus ..

2 to 3 dirty white, spotted red.
I to 2 white.

C

Halietofi }

I

F. Halietos

2 to 4 cream yellow, blotched
with red.

F. Palumbarius....

2 to 4 blueish white, mottled

Astur

with brown.
4 dirty white, blotched with red.
Unknown.

F. Fuscus

F. Cooperii

F. Lagopus

4 white, mottled with red.

F. Buteodis

2 to 4 waved with green, spotted

Bute©

F. Borealis

with yellow on a white ground.

Unknown.

F. Hyemalis

Unknown.

F. Cyaneus

3 to 5 plain blueish white.

(

Strix Funerea

2 white.

Surnia )

« Nyctea

2 white.

\

" Naevia

4 to 6 white.

C

" Virginianus...

2 to 4 white.

Bubo '

" Cinerea......

2 white, mottled with blackish

brown.

" Otus

4 to 5 white.

" Brachyotus. ..

2 to 4 white.

Uluia ,

" Nebulosa

4 to 5 white.

" Tengmalmi. . .

2 white.

" Acadica

Unknown.

" Dalhousii

Unknown.

Lanius

Lanius Excubitor...

6 cinereous white, mottled at the

larger end with rufous.

of the District of Montreal,

45

Genu3.

Colour of Eggs.

Muscicapa.

Vireo.

Muscicapa T/rannus

« Crinata.

Musicipeta Nunceola
" Virens..

" Querula.

Setophaga Ruticilla

Vireo Flavifrons .

■* Olivaceus .

Sylvia

Turdus

Tanagra

« GilTus

Sylvia Citrinella.

Varia
Coronata .
Pennsylranica
Maculosa ....
Pardulina ....
Philadelphica.
Blaclj:burnica .
Virens

5 yellowish white, blotched with
brown.

4 dull white blotched and mot-
tled with purple.

5 pure white.

3 to 4 cream colour, spotted and
blotched at larger end with
lilac and brown.

5 white.

3 to 4 cream white, mottled with
yellowish brown.

4 white, mottled with light and
dark brown at larger end.

3 to 4 white, mottled with light
and dark brown.

3 to 4 white, spotted blackish
purple at the larger end.

4 dull white,mottled with brown,

5 u u M.

Unknown.

Striata...
Castanea.
Pinus. .. .

Regulus Calendulus
" Cristatus..

Troglotides Fulvus

" Europaeus
Anthus Spinoletta

Ampelis Sialia. . .
Bombycilla Garrula
" Carolinensis

Turdus Migratorius.

« Rufus

«* Felivox

" Minor

" Mustelinus .

" Melodius . . .

" Noveboracensis

" Aurocapillus. .

Tanagra Rubra....

4 flesh colour, mottled with pur-
ple and brown.

4 to 5 white, mottled with brown.

Unknown.

4 greenish white, mottled with
pale brown and light purple.

Unknown.

6 to 12 yellowish white, spotted
with red.

10 to 18 white, with a few red-
dish spots.

10 to 18 white, spotted with red.

4 to 5 sullied white, mottled with

brown.

5 to 6 pale blue.
Unknown.

4 to 5 white, spotted black at
the larger end.

5 blueish green.

5 greenish white, spotted brown.

4 to 5 emerald green.

4 to 5 greenish blue.

4 to 5 emerald green.

4 to 5 greenish blue.

4 to 5 flesh colour, spotted dark
at larger end.

4 to 5 white, mottled reddish
brown.

3 to 4 dull blue, mottled brown-
ish purple at larger end.

46

Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Genus.

Colour of Eggs.

Quisculus
Oreolus ..

Eirundo . . .
Cypsilus . . .
Caprimulgus

Alauda.
Parus . .

Emberiza

Fringilla

Pyrrhula.

Icterus

Stumus

Quisculus Versicolor

" Baritus

" Ferrugineus
Oreolus Baltimorus.

Hirundo Purpurea. .

" Rufa

" Bicolor . . .

" Fulva ....
Cypsilus Pelasgius.
Caprimu's Vociferus

" Virginianus.

Alauda Alpestris*. .
Parus Palustris

Emberiza Nivalis. . .
" Lapponica*

Fringilla Cyanea...
" Nivalis

" Pennsylvanica.
" Melodia

" Canadensis . . .

" Leucophrys . . .
" Vocalis

" Graminea . . . . .
" Tristis

" Pinus

" Linaria

" Iliaca

" Ludoviciana . .

" Purpurea

Pyrrhula Enucleator
Icterus Phoeniceus. .

" Agripennis .

" Pecoris....,
Stur'usLudoviciana^

5 to 6 dull green, spotted with

dark olive.
5 dark coloured, spotted dusky.

5 dusky, spotted black.

4 to 5 blueish white spotted and

streaked with dark brown.
4 to 6 white.
4 white, spotted brown.
4 to 5 white.
4 white, spotted dusky brown.

4 white.

2 blueish white, blotched with
dark olive.

2 blueish white, mottled with
umber brown.

Unknown.

6 to 12 white, spotted reddish
brown.

5 whitish, mottled brown & grey.
5 to 6 yellowish rusty, clouded

with brown.
5 greenish white.

3 to 5 pale green, spotted cine-
reous.

Unknown.

4 to 5 greenish white, mottled
brown.

5 pale brown, mottled with dark
brown.

4 to 5 chocolate or dusky colour.
4 to 5 greenish blue,mottled with
dark and light brown.

4 to 5 whitish, mottled and
blotched with reddish brown
at larger end.

3 to 5 white, mottled lavender,
purple and yellowish brown
at larger end.

Unknown.

5 blueish white, spotted red.

5 mountain green,mottled brown

4 to 5 white, spotted brown.
Unknown.

4 to 5 white ?

3 to 5 blueish white, streaked
purple and dark brown.

5 to 6 olivaceous white, blotched
with lilac and rufous brown
at larger end.

3 to 5 greenish white, spotted
olive brown.

4 to 5 white, tinged with blue,
spotted^reddish brown.

* It is doubtful if those marked with au asteric breed in the district.
It is not improbable that they do so occasionally.

of the District of Montreal,

47

Genus.

Colour of Eggs.

Corvus
Certhia

Sitta

Trochilus
Alcedo . .

Picu3.

Cuculus
Tetrao . .
Lagopus

Columba ,

Charadrius .

Vanellus

Ardea . .
Botaurus

Calidris..,
Strepsilus

Numenius

Scolopax,
Limosa. .

Corvus Corax.

" Corone . . . .

" Cristatus ..

" Canadensis

Certhia Familiaris. ,

Sitta Carolinensis ..
" Canadensis . ..
Trochilus Colubris.
Alcedo Alcyon....
Picus Auratus

" Erythrocephalus

" Varius

" Villosus

" Pubescens

" Pileatus

" Tridactjlus ....

Cuculus Dominicus,

Tetrao Umbellus...

" Canadensis .

5 to 6 muddy blueish green,
spotted with olive brown.

2 white.

5 dull olive, spotted brown.

3 to 4 blue.

5 dull white, spotted brown.
Unknown.

7 or more cinereous spotted red-
dish yellow, and streaked
dark brown.

2 white.

6 white.
6 white.

6 white, spotted red ?

4 white.
white.
6 white.
6 white.

4 to 5 white.

3 to 5 blueish green.
10 to 15 dull yellow.

5 white, varied yellow & black.

Columba Migratoria2

" Carolinensis*, 2

Lagopus ...:7 to 15 rufous yellow, spotted
I with reddish black.

white, " one of them abor-
tive." Wilson,
white, breeds in the Southern
I States.
CharadriusVociferus 4 yellowish cream colour, spot-
I ted black.
" Pluvialis* .... 4 to 5 pale olive, spotted with

j black.
" Semipalmatus*,4 dark coloured, spotted with
I black.
Vanellus Helveticus4 cream colour, spotted and
I blotched with light and pur-
plish brown.
Ardea Herodias. ... 4 greenish blue.

" Discors 4 greenish blue.

" Lentigino3a..J4 cinereous green.

" Exilis jUnknown, but if resembling the

European species — white.
Calidris Arenaria*.. 4 dusky, spotted with black.
Strepsilus Interpres* 4 olive green,3potted with brown.
Xumenius Borealis*4 greenish spotted with light
I umber brown.
" Longirostri3 4 cream colour, spotted brown?

" Hudsonius .

Scolopax Grisea. . .
" "Wilsonii .
" Minor....

Limosa Fedoa* . . . .
" Hudsonica*.

4 dark blueish grey, spotted with

black or dark brown.
Unknown.

4 olivaceouSjSpottedwithbrown.
4 olivaceous white, blotched with

yellowish brown.
Unknown.
4 dark olive, spotted with pale

brown.

48

Dr, A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Genus.

Species.

Colour of Eggs.

Phaleropus

Phale. Hyperboreus*

3 to 4 olivaceous, thickly spotted
with blackish brown.

r

Tringa Alpina*. . . .

4 oil green, spotted liver brown

" Pectoralis..

Unknown.

Tringa. ■

" Rufescens..
« Pusilla ....

Unknown.

Unknown,

" Rufa*

4 dun colour, spotted red.

" Semipalmata*

4 to 5 white spotted with black.

Totanus Vociferus..

Uncertain or unknown, (4 dark
colour, spotted black. "Hut-
chins.")

Totanus

" Flavipes

Unknown-

" Chloropygius.

Unknown.

" Macularius ...

4 greyish yellow, speckled with

dark brown.

Rallus Virginianus.

6 to 10 cream colour, sprinkled
with brownish red, and pale

Rallus ■

purple.
Uncertain.

" Carolinus

" Noveboracensis

10 to 16 white.

Fulica ••••••••••

T^'nlifn. Amprinnnfl

Uncertain.

3 to 4 smokey olive, blotched

(

X U1X^C« XXliXVl J-k^ullcl/ . .

Colymbus Glacialis*

Colymbus •

with umber brown.

\

" Septemtrionalis*

2 pale oil green colour.

Podiceps Cornutus.

3 to 4 white, spotted brown.

" Cristatus ..

3 to 4 greenish white, waved
with dark brown.

Podiceps •

« Minor

5 to 6 dirty white.

" Rubricollis..

3 to 4 greenish white, sullied
with yellowish brown.

" Carolinensis

Unknown.

Sterna Hirundo

3 to 4 dull yellowish, or pale
whitish olive, blotched with
dark brown.

Sterna •

" Arctica*

2 to 3 light yellowish brown, or

blueish grey, spotted with

brown.

" Nigra

3 to 4 olive brown, mottled

brown and black.

Larus Atricilla

3 olive grey, spotted pale pur-
ple and dilute brown.

" Tridactylus..

3 olivaceous white, spotted light
and dark grey.

" Canus*

3 " blueish ochraceous," spotted
cinereous and blackish.

Larus

" Fuscus .... .

2 olive brown or grey, blotched
with dusky.

" Argentatus *

2 to 3 olivaceous, spotted with
dark cinereous.

" GlaucuB*....

3 pale purplish grey, spotted
with umber brown, and pale

' purple.

Anser Canadensis..

6 to 7 greenish white.

Anser '

" Hyperboreus*

yellowish white.

" Leucopsis* . .

Uncertain as to this country.

" Bernicla* . . .

Uncertain.

of the District of Montreal,

49

Genus,

Species.

Colour of eggs.

Cygnus Ferus...

Cjgnus Ferus

Anas Boschas

5 to 7 olivaceous green & rough.
10 to 18 blueish white.

" Clypeata

" Strepera

" Obscura

12 to 14 pale greenish yellow.
8 to 9 greenish grey.
8 to 15 white.

Anas

" Discors

" Crecca

dirty white, spotted with

brown.

" Americana . . .

6 to 8.

C

" Acuta

" Sponsa

" Albeola

8 to 9 greenish blue.

12 to 13 yellowish white.

Unknown.

Clangula }

Oidemia

" Clangula

" Hystrionica . .
" Perspicillata*.
" Fusca*

7 to 10 white.
12 to 14 white.
4 to 6 white.

8 to 10 white.

Harilda

« Glacialis

" Ferina

" Marila

" Rufitorquis . . .

llergus Senator

" Cucullatus .

5 pale greenish grey.

12 to 13 greenish white.

Unknown.

Unknown.

8 to 13 blueish white.

6 white.

Fuligula )

Mergus \

I

" Merganser. .

10 to 14 white.

Cam. Nat.

Vot. VII

ad

Dr, A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Table shewing the species met with in the District of Montreal,
their extreme Northern range, whether migratory or resident
in the District, their winter quarters, and the month of their
arrival at, and departure from the District.

Specific names.

Extr Resid.
ofN. jor Mi-
Lat. grat'ry

Falco Sparverius. . . Common.

" Columbarius . Scarce.

" Chrysaetos . . . iScarce.

" Leucocephalus Scarce.

" Halietos jCommon.

" Palumbarius . Common

" Insignatus . . . Rare

'• Fuscus

" Cooperii ....

" Lagopus ....

" Buteodis ....

" Borealis ....

" Hyemalis . . .
Cyaneus

ISStrix Funerea

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

" Nyctea . . .
" Naevia....
" Virginianus ....

" Cinerea

" Otus

" Brachyotus..
" Nebulosa . . .
" Tengmalmi .
" Acadica ....
" Dalhousii....
Lanius Excubitor
Muscicapa Tyrannus
" Crinata .

Muscipeta Nunciola.
" Virens...
" Querula .
Setophaga Ruticilla.
Vireo Flavifrons . . .
*' Olivaceus. . . .

" Gilvus

Sylvia Citrinella.. .

Varia

Coronata . . .
Pennsylvanica
Maculosa ....
Pardulina . . .
Philadelphica,
Blackburnica

Virens

Striata

Castanea . . . .

Pinus

Rubricapilla .

Migr 'y
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
iMigr'y

Winter quar-
ters.

W. I. Mex. &c
Mexico.

Common.

Rare.

Common.

Common.

Common.

Scarce.

Rare.

Common.

Common.

Scarce.

Common,

Common,

Common,

Common,

Common

Scarce.

Scarce.

Rare.

Common.

Common.

Common.

Common.

Common.

Scarce.

Common.

Scarce.

Common.

Rare.

Common.

Common.

Common.

Common.

Common

Common.

Scarce.

Rare.

Scarce.

Common,

Scarce.

Common

Rare.

South. States.
'Migr 'yiTropics.
Resid. JFur Countries

IMigr'y
49 jMigr'y South. States.
68 I Migr 'y

58 iMigr'y Mid. States.
55 jMigr'yS. California

Migr'yjSouth. States.
68 iMigr 'y South. States

Mar
April
April
April

April Nov

68
75

68
68
60
67
53
60
50

54
57

58

Resid.
Resid.
Migr 'y
Resid.
{Resid.
Resid.
IMigr'y
iResid.
Resid.
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
igr'y

South. States.

North. States.
North. States.

55

54

Tropics.
Tropics.

Migr 'y South. States
Migr 'ylSouth. States
Migr'y

Migr 'y
Migr'y
Migr 'y

68 Migr'y
JMigr -y

56 Migr'y
Migr 'y

55 Migr'y
Migr'y
Migr'y
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
Migr 'y
Migr'y
Migr'y
Migr 'y
Migr' y

South. States
United States
Tropics.
South. States
South. States
Tropics.

South. States.
South. States
Tropics.

Sep.
Nov.
Nov.

April

Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
May.

April

Mar.

Nov.

Dec.
Nov.
Nov.
Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

South. States

Mar.

Mar.

April

June,

June,

May.

May.

May.

May.

May.

May.

June.

May,

May.

June,

May.

June

June

June

June.

June.

May.

May,

May.

June.

Dee.
Dec.
Nov.
Sep.
Sep.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.

of the District of Montreal,

51

Specific names.

49 Regulus Calendulus Scarce.

50 Regulus Cristatus.. Scarce.

51 Troglotides Fulvus. Common.

52 " Europasus Scarce.

53 Anthus Spiuoletta. . Scarce.
54Coccyzu3 America's Scarce.

55 " Canadensis . Scarce.

56 Ampelis Sialia Common.

67 Bombycilla Garrula Scarce.

58 " Carolinensis Common.

59 Turdus Migratorius. Common.

60 " RufQS Common.

61 " Felivox. . . . Common.

62 " Minor Common.

63 " Mustelinus .. Scarce.

64 " Melodius ... Common.

65 " Noveboracensis Rare.

66 " Aurocapillus .. Elare,

67 Tanagra Rubra Common.

68 Quisculus Versicolor Common.

69 " Baritus.. Common,
VO " Ferrugineus Scarce.

71 Oreolus Baltimorus. Common,

72 Hirundo Purpurea. . Common,

73 « Rufa Common,

74 " Bicolor .... Common,

75 " Fulva Common

76 Cypsilus Pelasgius. Common

77 Caprimul's Vociferus Common

78 " Virginianus. Scarce.

79 Alauda Alpestris,. . Scarce.

80 Parus Palustris Common

SlEmberiza Nivalis... Common

82 " Lapponica Rare.

83 Fringilla Cyanea. . . Common

84 " Nivalis ... Common,

85 " Pennsylvanicus Common

86 " Melodia Common

87 " Canadensis . . . Common

88 " Leucophrys . . . Rare.

89 " Graminea Common

90 « Tristis Common

91 « Pinus Rare.

92 " Linaria Scarce.

93 « Iliaca Rare.

94 " Ludoviciana .. Scarce.

95 " Purpurea Common

96 " Socialis Common

97 Pyrrhula Enucleator Common

98 Icterus Phoeniceus. . Common

99 " Agripennis.. Common
100 " Pecoris .... Scarce.

ExtrResid.

ofN
Lat.

or Mi
grat'ry

Migr* y
Migr' y
Migr* y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr* y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr'y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Resid
M. & R
Migr' y
Migr' y

Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
M. & R
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y

South. States.
South. States. May
South. States. Sep.
South. States. June.
South. States. June.
South. States. May.
Mex., Tropics Jan.
Mex., Tropics A&M
South. States. iMay.
South. States. 'June.

Florida.
South. States,

Winter quar
ters.

I o "5

Q e3

Tropics.

May.
May.
May.

Flor., Brazil.

South. States.

South. States.

Tropics.

Brazil.

Tropics.

Louisiana.

S. America.
S. America.

Mexico,

May.
May.
May.
May.
May.
May.
June.
June.
May.
June.
May.
May.
May.
April
May.
May.
May.
May.
Sep.

Nov.

April

June.

April

Sep.

April

May

O c8

Qts

Oct.

Oct.

Aug.

Aug.

Nov.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Feb.

Sep.

Oct.

Sep.

Oct.

Sep.

Oct.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Oct.

Sep.

Sep.

Aug.

Sep.

Aug.

Aug.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Nov.

May.

Sep.
Oct.
Nov,
Sep.
Sep.

South. States,

California

North, States. June.lSep.

M. & S. States|April'Oct.

Mexico. JMay. Nov.

IMay. iSep.

Fur Countries May. jSep.
M. & S. States May iSep,
M. & S. States May, |Sep.
South. States. April Sep.

Fur Countries Dec.
Mexico, &c. |M«y.
South. States, April

Mexico.
Mexico.

May.

May.

Mar.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.
Sep.

* Observed only in cold winters, when a scarcity of food drives them
8oath,

52

Dr. A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

101
102
103
104
105
106

lot

108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116]
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149

Specific names.

SturnusLudoviciana

Corvug Corax

" Corone* .. .
" Cristatus...
Gorvus Canadensis*
CerthiaFamiliaris. .
Sitta Carolinensis. .
" Canadensis . .
Trochilus Colubris.
Alcedo Alcyon....

Picus Auratus

" Erythrocephalus

" Varius

" Villosus

" Pubescens

" Pileatus

" Tridactylus ....

Cuculus Dominicus.

Tetrao Umbellus...

" Canadensis .

" Lagopus . . .

Columba Migratoria

" Carolinensisf

Charadrius Pluvialis

" Vociferus

" Semipalmatus
Vanellus Helveticus

Ardea Herodias

" Discors

" Lentiginosa .

" Exilis

Calidris Arenaria. .

Strepsilus Interpres.

Xumenius Borealis.

" Longirostris

" Hudsonius .

Scolopax Grisea...

" Wilsonii,.

" Minor+ . .

Limosa Fedoa

" Hudsonica.

P haleropus Hy perbo,

Tringa Alpina

" Pectoralis . .
■' Rufescens . .

" Pusilla

" Rufa

" Semipalmata
Phalacrocorax Dilop

Rare.

Rare,

Common,

Common,

Common,

Scarce.

Scarce.

Common.

Common,

Common,

Common,

Common,

Scarce.

Common,

Common,

Scarce.

Scarce.

Scarce.

Common,

Common,

Rare.

Common,

Rare.

Common,

Scarce.

Scarce,

Rare.

Scarce.

Common,

Common,

Rare.

Common,

Scarce.

Scarce.

Rare.

Scarce.

Rare.

Common,

Common,

Rare.

Scarce.

Scarce.

Common,

Scarce.

Rare.

Common.

Common,

Common,

Scarce.

Extr
ofN,
Lat

Resid.
or Mi-
grat'ry

Migr' y
Resid,
M. & R
Migr' y
Resid.
Migr' y
Migr' y
iMigr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Resid.
Resid.
Resid.
Resid.
Migr' y
Resid,
Resid,
Resid,
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y
Migr' y

South. States. May.
Fur Countries!
Fur Countries!
M. & S. States May.
Fur Countries
South, States, May
Mexico, jApril

South, States. 'April
Mexico. 'May.

Mex., Tropics May.
South. States. May.
South. States. May.
S. StateSyMexMay.

Winter quar- % f.

ters. i"^*S

Tropical Am

South. States,

May.

May.

May.
May.
May,

Tropics.
California.
South. States.
South, States. lApril
M. & S, States|May.
South. States. JMay.
South. States, May.

!May.

, & S. States May.
Tropics. May.

May.

May.

May.

S. States, Tr's May.
South. StatesJApril
South. States. jMar.
S. States, Tr's May.
S. States, Tr's.May.

A.,M.

South. States.'April

April

I April

S. States, Tr's A,,M.
S, States, Tr's A.,M,

April

Mid, States, JApril

Sep.

Oct.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Aug.

Sep.

Sep.

Sep.

Oct.

Aug.

Sep.

Not.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Sep.
Oct.
Oct.
Sep.
Sep.
Oct,
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Sep.
Nov.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Oct.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.

♦ Has been frequently observed wintering in the District.
fOne specimen killed in June, 1838.

X Leave about the 20th October, but have been seen in mild autumns,
as late as the 10th of December.

of the District of Montreal.

53

Specific Names.

Extr
ofX.
Lat.

Resid.
or Mi-
grat'ry

Winter quar-^ S > « |

ters. "S '£ ^ o

150 Totanus Vociferus. .
151, " Flavipes . .
152 *^ Chloropygius
153. " Macularius . .
154Rallu3 Virginianus.

155 Rallus Carolinus. . .

156 " Xoveboracensis
157Fulica Americana..

158 Colymbus Glacialis.

159 " Septemtrionalis.

160 Podiceps Cornutus .

161 " Cristatus .

162 « Minor....

163 " Rubicollis

164 ^' Carolinensis

165 Sterna Hirundo

166' " Arctica

167^ " Nigra

168 Larus Atricilla

169
170|
171
172
1731

Tridaetylus. .

Canus

Fuscus

Argentatus . .

Glaucus

174Anser Canadensis..

175 " Hyperboreus .

176 " Leucopsis . . .

177 " Bernicla ....

178 Cygnus Ferus

179 Anas Boschas

Common.

Common,

Scarce.

Common.

Common.

Common,

Rare.

Scarce.

Common,

Rare.

Scarce.

Common,

Rare.

Scajce.

Scarce.

Common,

Common,

Scarce,

Scarce.

Common,

Common.

Scarce.

Scarce.

Common,

Common,

Scarce.

iRare.

iRare.

Rare.

180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199

Clypeata . . . .

Strepera

Obscura

" Discors

" Crecca

" Americana...,

" Acuta

" Sponsa

" Albeola

" Clangula .- . .
" Histrionica .. .
" Perspicillata..

" Fusca

Harelda Glacialis . .

Fuligula Ferina

" Marila

" Rufitorquis. . .

Mergus Serrator . . .

" Cucullatus .

" MergajQser . .

15

ommon.
Scarce,
Rare.
Common.
Common.
Common.
Scarce.
Common.
Common.
Common.
Common.
Rare.
Rare.
Common.
Common.
Scarce.
Scarce.
Rare.
Common.
Scarce.
Common,

Migr'
.Migr
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
xMigr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
73 JMigr'
jMigr'
73 JMigr'
iMigr'
68 |Migr'
70 I Migr'
68 Misrr'

60
70
68

62
57
55
70
74
68
68

68
62

57
75
60

74
71

75
75
70

ys. States, Tr's April Oct.
yte. States, Tr's A.,M. Oct.
yiUnited States A.,M. Oct,
yjUnited States April Oct.
y South. States. ;May. Sep.
y Tropics. May. Sep.

y Tropics. jMay. Sep.

y California. May. Sep.
yMid'le States. 'April Dec.
y United States. April Dec.
yMid'le States. May. Sep.
y South. States. May. Sep.
y South. States. iMay. Sep.
y South. States. May. Sep.
y South. States. May. Sep.
y Tropics. lApril Nov.

y M. & S. States'April Nov.
y M. & S. StatesiMay. Nov.
J Tropics. lApril Nov.

y United States. 'April Nov.
yMid'le States. [May. Sep.
y Mid'le States. 'May. Sep.
y Mid'le States. ;May. Oct.
y Mid'le States. April Oct.
y Mid'le States. April Nov.
y UnitedStates. April Nov.

y April Nov.

y South. States. April Nov.

y April Nov.

y California. April Nov.
y Mexico. April Nov.

y

Mexico.

Mid'le States,
yj Mexico.
yiTropics.

Migr'
58 Migr'
70 jMigr
68 Migr'y-M. & S. States

Migr'
Migr'
Migr'
Migr'

70

54

68

68

68 IMigr'

72 |Migr'

.72 JMlgr'

75 IMigr'

68 Migr'

68 Migr'

68 Migr'

68 Migr'

68 j.Migr'

68 JMigr'

.Mexico.

Mexico.

Mexico.

M. k S. States
y Mid'le States.
vlUnited States.

April Oct.
April Nov.
April Nov,
April Nov.
May. Oct,
April Oct.
April Oct.
April Nov.
April Nov.
May. Oct.
May. Dec.
April Nov.
April Nov.
Oct.

y Mid'le States.

y Mid'le States.

y M. & S. States May

y M. & S. States|May. Oct.

y M. & S. States May. 'Oct.

y South. States.lMay. jOct.

yjSouth. States.! April Oct.

y|United States;May. Nov.

54 Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

BIRDS.
Fam. Accipitres. — Genus Falco.

Gen. char. Beak more or less hooked, furnished with a cere which
is more or less hairy, and usually coloured ; mandibles frequently
dentated ; nostrils lateral, rounded or oval, open, and surrounded
by the cere ; tarsus feathered or naked, in the latter event always
scaly ; toes four — 3 before, and 1 behind ; anterior middle one
longest, and the exterior usually connecterl with it by a membrane
as far as the first joint ; talons sharp, more or less curved and
retractile ; tail of 12 feathers ; wings long.
Suh- gen. Falco.

Sub gen. char. Beak short, incurved ; upper mandible with
one or two teeth ; legs robust ; tarsi short, toes long ; talons
sharp and hooked ; 1st and 3rd primaries subequal, 2nd longest.
The 1st and 2nd have an abrupt emargination of their inner web
towards their extremities.

F. sparverius. Sparrow hawk.

Falco (^Tinnunculus) sparverius. Linnseus and Baird!

v.s.p. Cere yellow ; legs and feet yellow ; bill bluish black :
irides hazel ; eggs 4 to 5, brownish yellow, mottled brown. Male
plumage, dorsal aspect. — A black streak from each angle of the
mandibles ; crown of head reddish brown, surrounded by a coro-
net of ashy bine; auriculars white^ a narrow white line forms the
base of the frontlet, and is continued over the eye ; the back and
Dearly the whole tail, light reddish brown ; interscapular region
dotted with black. Ventral aspect. — Chin, throat, breast, belly,
and vent dirty white, with oval black spots across the body, and
continued thence to the wings as fnr as the primaries ; seconda-
ries ash blue above, with black oval spots ; primaries black, with
their inner webs barred with white ; inferiorly the inner webs of
both are barred with faint black lines on a white ground, the
outer webs being wholly black. The outer lateral tail feather
barred with black and white, the bars continued to the outer
web of the 2nd ; all the other tail feathers of the dorsal tint ; a
broad black bar terminates the reddish brown, which is itself
terminated, except in the two central feathers, by a white tip.
The same distribution of colour marks the under surface of the
tail, only fainter. Length from the bill to the extremity of the
tail fourteen inches ; alar expanse twenty-six inches. The female
presents the same characters about the head as the male. On the

ofthi District of Montreal, 55

occiput, however, the ash blue ceases, and the whole remaining
dorsal region presents a uniform series of deep reddish brown, and
brownish black bars; on the tail these bars are 10 or 12 in num-
ber. The ventral aspect is white with longitudinal brown streaks.
i^. columharius. Pigeon hawk.
Falco (Hypotriorchis) columharius. Linn ! Baird !

v.s.p. Bill light blueish gray, tipped with black ; eyelids and
cere greenish yellow ; tarsi yellow ; eggs 2 to 4 mottled with red.

Dorsal aspect. Feathers on the head and back of the neck,
black with brown edges ; a light brown streak from the cere pro-
ceeds backwards over the eyes, which are prominent, and is lost
on the neck. Krom this part downwards the colour is deep cho-
colate brown. The primaries and secondaries have this colour
relieved by whitish brown oval spots, tipped with the same. The
tail with 4 interrupted whitish brown bars, with a terminal one
of same colour.

Ventral aspect. Chiu, 'throat, auriculars, breast, belly, and
vent, with the femorals, yellowish, streaked chocolate brown. Ou
the chin and throat these streaks are little more than confined to
the shafts of the feathers, but on the breast and belly they are
large, and of a lanceolate shape. The under tail coverts are
streaked like the femorals ; under surface of the tail chocolate
brown, barred with white ; the wing linings yellowish brown,
spotted with white, and the inner surface of the primaries banded
like the tail.

The bill is compressed, hooked, deeply toothed, with a corres-
ponding groove in the lower mandible ; nostrils round ; 3rd primary
longest; 2nd about a line shorter, and 1st about a line shorter
than 4th; tail square, the feathers angled off at their tips; toes
with cushions at the joint ; middle toe longest, more than twice
the length of the hind toe. Length of a specimen in the author's
possession, 12j inches ; alar expanse 25 inches.
Siib. genus Aquila.

Sub. gen. char. Bill strong, of considerable length, hooked
towards the apex and straight at the base ; eyes sunk ; nostrils
subcircular; cere hispid; 4th and 5th primaries longest: legs
strong, feathered to the toes ; toes strong; talons incurved, and
channelled inferiorly.

F. chrysaetos. Golden eagle.
F. fulvus of Temminck 1

B6 Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

F. Canadensis of Gmelin !

Aquila fulva of Meyer !

Aquila Canadensis. Linn. ! Baird !

v.s.p. Cere and feet yellow ; irides orange brown ; beak blue
at the base, brown at tip ; eggs 2 to 3 impure white, spotted red.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of head and nape of neck with acumi-
nate feathers of a bright rufous orange tinge. The rest of this
aspect dark brown, more or less inclined to black, according to
the age of the bird.

Ventral aspect. Dark brown verging to black ; tail dark grey,
banded irregularly with blackish brown, and terminated by a
broad band of the same colour; scapulars invariably brown.
" The young is uniformly of a ferruginous brown, and with the
feathers nearly all white towards the base ; tail white, with a broad
terminal brown and mottled band and no bars. (Nuttall.)
Length about 3 feet ; alar expanse 6 feet. Female about 6 inches
longer than the male.

Sub genus Haliaetos.

Sub. gen. char. Ridge of the beak convex and compressed ;
nostrils luneiform ; cere slightly hispid ; wings long ; tarsi fea-
tlfered on their upper half with short close set feathers, and scut-
ellated on the anterior inferior portion ; talons of equal length,
much bent and grooved internally.

F. leucocephalus. Bald or White headed eagle.
Haliaetos leucocephalus. Linn. ! Baird !

v.s.p. ET V. Bill, cere, irides and tarsi, yellow. The young
bird with a black bill and pale brown irides.

Ventral and dorsal aspects. Head, upper part of neck, tail
and coverts, pure white ; body and wings chocolate brown ; the
margins a shade or two lighter ; quill feathers brownish black
with paler shafts ; 4th primary longest ; 3rd subequal ; outer
webs of the primaries sinuate ; inner webs abruptl}'' emarginate
towards their ends ; tail round ; tarsi feathered for more than
half their length; the anterior naked part strongly scutellated ; hind
toe very long, and its talon longer and stouter than the others ;
middle toe longest, with the shortest talon and grooved on its inner
surface. Length 38 inches; alar expanse 61 inches.

This bird does not assume its adult plumage until the 4th year,
during which time its plumage varies considerably according to its
age. Young bird. Feathers of the head and neck acuminate, inter-

of the District of Montreal, 57

nally white, then umber brown, and tipped with whitish brown.
Whole dorsal aspect except the wings pure brown ; tail black with
minute whitish brown mottlings on the outer vanes of the feath-
ers and blotched with pure white on all the inner vanes except the two
centre feathers. Ventral aspect. Feathers of the chin and throat
like the head, the white however more apparent; breast,
belly and vent, brown ; inner wing coverts white tipped with
brown ; primaries white, 2nd mottled with whitish brown on both
vanes; tertiaries white, mottled with brown and brown tips;
tail round, blotched with white about the centre of each inner
vane ; femorals blackish brown, 'with whitish brown tips to the
end of the shafts ; tarsi yellow, very strong, feathered on the upper
half; toes stout, thickly cushioned ; claws long, much curved,
deeply grooved and compressed along their inferior margin ;
claws of the inner and hind toes equal in length ; bill 2| inches
long from the eye ; the curve commencing at the extremity of the
cere which projects half the distance ; nostrils oval diagonal and
naked ; upper mandible lobed near the end, beyond which the
inner surface drops perpendicularly to form the apex; there
is another rudimentary lobe a little posterior to the front one ;
lower mandible not notched, but rather compressed at its sides ;
the wings extend to about 2^ inches of the extremity of the tail.
Length 38 inches ; alar expanse 72 inches.

Another specimen, a younger bird probably, or perhaps of a
different sex, presented throughout the same essential characters,
but differed slightly in the colour, which was lighter and more
rusty. It measured 40 inches with an alar expanse of Y6
inches.

The young of this species has often been confounded with that
of the F. chrysaetos. The distinguishing characteristic is, that in
the latter the tarsi are completely feathered, while in the former
they are only feathered on their upper half, the lower half being
naked and scaly. The young of the F. albicilla, an European
species, resembles our present bird more than any other. Tem-
minck has suggested that the tail of the European species is larger
than that of ours; Richardson suggests another characteristic,
that the upper mandible of the former has two lobes, while that
of the i^. leucocephalus has but one. From what I have seen
there seems to be a mistake here, for the two specimens alluded
to, which have furnished me my description, have very evidently
two— a large very obtuse one near the curve, and a 2nd one

58 Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

not so large, but perfectly distinct behind it, and a little anteriorly
to the base of the cere. It is the case also in another specimen
which I have since examined.

F. haliaetos. Fish hawk or Osprey.
Aquila halicetus of Meyer !
Ti/pe of sub gen. Pandion of Cuvier !
Pandion Carolinensis. Gmelin ! Baird !
v.s.p. Cere and bill bluish black ; claws pale blue ; irides
orange and yellow ; eggs 2 to 4 cream yellow, with red blotches ;
tarsi strong, about 2 inches long, feathered down their anterior
surface, and scutellated on their other parts, the scales being
rounded and tiled ; soles and inner surface of the claws shagree-
ned; talons curved, tapering, rounded beneath.

Crown of the head white on each side, with a central streak of
black continued to the neck, these feathers occasionally edged
with yellow, and erectile; a dark brown stripe includes the orbit
and is lost upon the shoulders. Dorsal aspect generally umber
brown verging to black ; tail brown and barred with a deeper
brown ; the inner vanes of the feathers barred with dusky brown
and brownish white ; wing feathers with the outer vanes black,
and their inner ones barred similarly to the tail. Ventral aspect
generally white, with yellowish delineations on the breast ; ante-
rior and lateral femorals streaked with brown; inner and posterior
ones white. The female is two inches longer than the male, and
is spotted with brown on the breast. The young birda have the
feathers on the dorsal aspect tipped with yellowish white, have a
fawn coloured spot on the breast, and blue feet. Length of an
old male 23 inches ; alar expanse 54 inches.
Suh genus Astur.
Sub gen. char. Bill strong ; tooth well defined ; nostrils
rounded ; middle toe longest, and connected to the adjoining
outer one ; 4th primary longest.

F. palumbarius. Goshawk.
F. atricapillus of Wilson !
F. regalis of Tomminck !
Ti/pe of sub genus Astur of Bechstein I
Ti/pe of sub genus Dcedelion of Savigny !
F, gallinarius, Young, Gmelin and Frisch !
Astur atricapillusy (Wils.) ! Bonap. ! Baird !
V.S.P. Bill blackish blue, whitish below the cere, with a cor-
responding spot on the lower mandible ; cere and legs yellow ;

of the District oj Montreal, 59

irides orange yellow ; eggs 2 to 4 blue white, mottled with
brown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of the head, nape of the neck, cheeks
and auriculars black, with the white bases of the feathers ap-
pearing. A white stripe, with the shafts of the feathers black,
crosses over the eyes, from the base of the bill on each side, and
loses itself upon the neck ; back, wing coverts, interscapulary
regions as far as the rump blueish gray with black shafts ; pri-
maries and secondaries with their coverts brown, with lighter
edges ; rump white, with two perfect brown bars, and occasion-
ally an imperfect third : tail, two centre feathers blueish grey,
with 4 dark brown bars, and an imperfect fifth ; four next lighter
brown, with five distinct bars, imperfectly continued to the inner
vane of the last feather; primaries dark brown, mottled white
towards their insertion.

Ventral aspect including the femorals and wing linings of short
wavy lines of greyish black on a white ground, with dark grey
shafts; tail dirty white with brown bars, indistinct on the two
outer feathers ; tail coverts white, a few of them mottled grey.

Tarsi half feathered ; toes strong ; talons curved, long, grooved
inferiorly, the middle one with a salient inner edge ; upper man-
dible compressed, toothed ; lower one rounded near the apex ;
nostrils oval, clothed with stiff hairs presenting a stellated ap-
pearance a little over the commissure of the mouth. The upper
hairs meet over the nostrils, all closely appressed ; 4th primary
longest; 3rd about a line shorter; 2nd, 3 lines shorter than the
3rd ; 1st about half an inch longer than 6th, and shorter than
the 5th. Length 26 ^ inches; alar expanse 42 inches. The
female is met with about 5 inches longer than the male. Her
dorsal aspect is brown, slightly tipped with white, and a white
relieves the place of the mottled ventral aspect of the male with
occasional patches of brown of an oblong shape on the breast and
throat, and oval on the belly. In both male and female the tail
is much rounded, the outer feathers being 1 ^ inches shorter than
the centre ones.

F.fuscus. Slate coloured hawk.

F. Pennsylvanicus of Wilson ! Adult male.

F. velox of Bonaparte ! Young female.

Acdpiter fringilloides of Vigors !

Accipiter Pennsylvanicus of Swainson !

Buteo Pennsylvanicus. Wilson ! Bonap. ! Baird !

'60 Dr. A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

v.s.p. Bill blueish black ; cere geenish yellow ; irides reddish
orange ; tarsi bright yellow ; claws black ; eggs 4, dirty white
blotched with red.

Dorsal aspect. Crown and nape of the neck blackish, soon
changing to a blueish grey, which invests the whole dorsal re-
gion, including the wings and tail ; the shafts of the primaries,
secondaries and tail feathers brown ; the shafts of all the other
feathers black. Towards the primaries and tail, the blueish grey
changes to a brown, which in the former is barred with a deep
brown mottled with white, and in the latter is intersected by 4
broad bars of a deep brown colour, and tipped with white. The
1st band is imperfect,the three next are very distinct, and gradually
increase in breadth. The last one is very broad, and bounded
by the terminal white tip.

Ventral aspect. Chin and throat white, with black shafts;
breast, belly, and vent reddish brown, barred with white, and
black shafts ; femorals like the belly with white shafts ; wing
surfaces white barred with brown, the white changing to an ashy
blue towards the extremities of the primaries and secondaries;
tail coverts white ; the bars on the under surfaces of the wings
and tail very distinct.

Legs long ; scales on the anterior surface of the tarsi minute ;
toes long ; middle one longest, and twice the length of the hind
toe ; claws long, curved, sharp, and grooved beneath ; nostrils
oval, placed longitudinally ; 1st primary equal to the seconda-
ries ; 2nd about two lines longer than 1st; 3rd and 6th sub-
equal ; 4th longest, and 5th about a line shorter ; tail square.
Length of a male in the author's possession 11 J- inches; alar
expanse 21 inches. Nuttal says that "the feathers on the breast
and sides of a young female were marked with broadish trans-
verse pale brown bars, terminated by oblong, oblanceolate spots."

F. Cooperii. Cooper's Hawk.
Accipiter Cooperii, Bonap ! Baird !

D.c. This bird I have not yet met with, but have no doubt, in
consequence of its range, that it is an occasional visitant in this
section of Catiada.

*' Tail rounded, with 4 blacl^ish bands, and tipped with white,
wings extending when folded to the second band. 2nd quill
nearly equal in length to the 6th, and the 3rd to the 5th. Length
18 or more inches. Young, dusky brown, skirted with ferru-

of the District of Montreal. 61

gineous, beneath white, with oblanceolate dusky brown spots."
(Nuttal).

S\d) genus Btiteo.

Sub gen. char. Bill short, curved from its base ; lobe blunt ;
sides of the lower mandible in-curved ; wings long ; 1st priraary
shortest; four first primaries indented in their inner web. The
tarsi of some are feathered the whole length, distinguished from
the eagles by their bill curving from the base, and from the
goshawks by the naked space between the eyes and bill.
F. lagojms. Booted hawk. Rough legged falcon.
F. Sdavonicus. Latham !
F. spadicius of Idem !
Archihuteo lagopus. Briinnich ! Gray ! Baird I

v.s.p. ET M. Cere and irides light drab ; tarsi yellow; bill and
claws black ; eggs 4, white, mottled with red.

Dorsal aspect. Head and neck light yellowish brown, streaked
with umber brown, and black shafts ; dorsal region as far as the
rump umber brown, the feathers edged with light yellowish
brown, these tips disappearing towards the rump ; wing coverts
umber brown, tipped with rufous ; four first primaries indented in
their inner webs, white near their quills, and dark chocolate
brown towards their extremities ; shafts white, edged with brown
along the quills, the remainder brown; the basal half of the tail
is brownish white, terminated by umber brown, tipped with grey-
ish white.

Ventral aspect. Throat, breast and belly, like the upper sur-
face, but with narrower streaks ; on the breast the streaks are
broader ; then comes an apparent interruption, which is followed
by a broad belt of umber brown across the belly ; the feathers
here being, except in the centre, not edged with white ; wing
coverts and vent feathers brownish white, with white shafts ; tail
yellowish white at the base, with a terminal slate grey border .
inner shafts of all the wing feathers white, the quills themselves
white towards their base, with their distal halves shining blackish
brown; shoulders white; tarsi feathered to the toes; femorals
very long reaching to the toes, yellowish brown, streaked with
chocolate, in the form of an oval spot at the extremity of each
feather.

Toes stout, cushioned ; middle toe longest; claws long, strong,
not much curved, grooved beneath, the middle one with a salient

62 2>r. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

inner edge. Length 24 inches ; alar expanse 50 inches ; 1st and
Yth primaries equal ; 2nd about 1^ inch longer than 6th ; 3rd
and 5th equal ; 4th longest; 2nd two lines longer than the 3rd»
tail square. " The female is generally lighter on the back, but
browner on the sides and belly. The young bird has the belt only
indicated by large brown spots on the side, with the feathers of
the thighs transversely barred. The tail with three broad bands
towards its extremity, and with the iris brownish yellow."
(Nuttall).

7^. Sancti Johannis, Black hawk.
F. niger. Wilson !

Archibuteo Sancti Johannis. Gmelin ! Gray ! Baird !
v.s.p. The only specimen of this species which has fallen
under my notice is a young bird shot this spring (1838) at the
Priests' Farm, Montreal, of which the following is a description.
I have little doubt but that this species and the former have fre-
quently been confounded by naturalists.

" Bill black ; cere, angles of the mouth, and tarsi yellow ; eggs
unknown ; irides yellow ; whole dorsal and ventral aspects uni-
form blackish brown, with the white under surface of the feathers
appearing on crown and throat ; primaries, secondaries, and the
tail white, with their distal halves clove brown ; 3rd, 4th and 5th
primaries indented on their outer vanes; tail with brownish white
tips to the feathers and not barred, and with brownish white
shafts ; femorals long reaching nearly to the toes, with light
brown emarginations to the feathers ; tarsal feathers brown tip-
ped like the femorals ; 3rd primary longest ; 2nd shorter than
4th; 1st and 7th equal; hind claw longest; anterior middle
claw with an inner salient edge. Length 23 inches ; alar ex-
panse 43 inches. The bill, legs and claws more slender than in
the F. lag opus. Audubon considers the variety as the result of
age. He told me so in 1842, when in this city.

F. Dawsonis. Dawson's Falcon. (New Species, Hall !)
I have only seen two specimens of this beautiful Falcon, the one
in the Museum of the Natural History Society, and evidently from
its dimensions, as well as fact, a female ; the other a young male
belonging to Mr. Hunter, the taxidermist of the Society. The
first was bought in the market of Montreal a few years ago, and
the second was shot at Lachine this autumn (1861) by a relation
of Mr. Hunter. It bears some resemblance to Prof. Cassin's Hiero*

oj the District of Montreal, 63

falco sacer, especially his description of the young bird, but dif- *
fers from it in having the claws black; and the under part of the
claws are not greenish yellow, but of the same hue as the tarsus ;
and the general tint of the dark parts of the plumage is not
brown, but emphatically slate color. It also somewhat resembles
the description given by the same gentleman of the F. atricapillns
or plumbarius but differs in having greenish blue tarsi, and a
bluish cere, with black irides. I believe this bird to be a new
species, and have taken the liberty of calling it after Dr. Dawson
the esteemed principal of McGill College.

v.s.p. Bill stout, strongly toothed in upper mandible, the tooth
corresponding with a notch in the lower one, of a bluish color, ter-
minating in a black tip, which is the color of the cere and irides.
Tarsi feathered half way to toes, of a dark greenish blue. Toes
long, moderately strong, claws black and much curved. Eyelids
dirty white this color forming a complete circle round the eyes.

Dorsal aspect. The prevailing tint is dark slate color tipped
with cinereous on the back of the neck, interscapulars and second-
aries, and with rufous on the back, the upper tail coverts tipped
with dirty rufous white. Many of the secondaries have a rufous
white rounded spot near the end of their outer vanes. Tint of the
upper part of the tail of a brownish slate color, with about 1 1 to
14 bars of light rufous terminating in rufous white near the tip,
the tail tipped with the same color. The tail consists of about 11
feathers, the extrenjities of which are all rounded.

Ventral aspect. Chin and upper part of throat whitish, each
feather having a narrow streak along its shaft of slate color. The
prevailing tint, like that of the back is slate color, but differing
from the back in that each feather has the outer vane white, with
an irregular long white spot on the inner vane, leaving the central
portion of the prevailing color. Femorals as long as the tarsals, the
white on the feathers here assuming almost a banded or barred
appearance, which in the female is distinctly so. Under tail coveiis of
alternate rufous white and slate colored bars. The under surface of
the tail exhibits a rufous tint, while the bars are more distinctly seen.
2nd. Primary longest; 1st shorter than the 3rd, but longer than
the 4th ; inner vanes of the primaries barred with white.

The female which resembles the male in every respect except
the bars on the femorals, had its bill a good deal worn, thus indi-
cating it to be an old bird. Length of the male 23^ inches. Alar
expanse 38 inches. That of the female 27J inchest with an alar
expanse of of 42 inches.

64 Dr, A* Hall on the Mammals and Birds

F. buteoides. Short winged buzzard.
F. buteo of Pennant!

v.s.p. ET V. Bill and claws black ; tarsi yellow ; irides (" dark
brown," Nuttall,) bright yellow ; eggs 2 to 4 whitish, waved
with green and spotted yellowish.

Dorsal aspect. Feathers of the head, neck, and dorsal regions
blackish brown edged with ferruginous, least so on the back and
head, and broadly so on the neck ; scapulars brown, with indica.
tions of white bars on the inner vanes below the surface ; a ferru.
ginous tint predominating on the outer vanes, and a white on
the inner vanes ; wing coverts ferruginous brown, tipped with
ferruginous white, and indications of white bars on the inner
vanes of the greater coverts ; rump brown ; tail coverts, centre
ones white on the outer vanes, barred with white on the inner
vanes, on a blackish 'brown ground, and tipped with white; tail
round, ferruginous near the base, soon changing to a pale
brown, tipped with soiled white, and with 9 to 11 bars of dark
blackish brown. Primaries clove brown ; the quill halves of
inner vanes ferruginous white, spotted with clove brown spots ;
the ferruginous white continued to the outer vane of the 2nd,
3rd, 4th and 5th ; secondaries paler brown, with half of the
inner vanes white barred with the brown.

Ventral aspect. Chin, throat, breast, belly, tail and wing co-
verts white, tinged with ferruginous, with oval and oblanceolate
brown spots at the end of each feather ; vent ferruginous white \
femorals the same colour with a lanceolate spot of brown.

Legs long, feathered for one-third their length, scutellated on the
remaining portion. 4th primary longest; 3rd a little shorter
than 5th ; 2nd about 4 lines longer than 6th ; 1st and 8th equal.
F. borealis. Red tailed hawk.
F. levorianus young bird.
Buteo (Poecilopternis) borealis. Gmelin 1 Vieill. I Baird !

D.c. " Bill greyish black ; cere, sides of the mouth, and tarsi yel-
low ; upper parts dark brown touched with ferruginous ; scapu-
lars barred beneath the surface ; the lateral tail coverts white,
barred with rusty ; middle ones dark ; tail rounded, extending
two inches beyond the wings, of a reddish brown or brick colour,
with a single band of black near the end, and tipped with brown-
ish white; the breast rust coloured, streaked with dark brown ;
chin white ; vent and femorals pale ochreous, the latter with a
few small heart shaped spots of brown ; iris yellow. Length 22

of the District of Montreal, 65

inches ; alar expanse 45 inches." (Nuttall). I have not met with
a male bird as above described, but the following description is
from a young female in a state of moult, probably her first. It
differs somewhat from a description of an old female by Richard-
son.

v.s.p. Bill and claws blueish ; cere and legs greenish yellow ;
feathers on head and back with streaks of chocolate brown, narrow
on the head, and streaked with white, except on the shoulders, where
a rufous tinge terminates them. Vanes of the primaries yellowish
brown towards the base, with indication of bars, changing to
brown on their distal halves ; upper tail coverts barred with
brown ; the last bar on each feather heart shaped. Tail dark
chocolate brown, tipped with dirty white, and having 8 bars of a
reddish brown, the red line gradually disappearing towards the
extremity where it changes to a light brown. Basal ends of the
primaries and secondaries, white or yellowish white, soon
changing to slate colour with bars. Femorals, yellowish white,
with minute brown spots near the extremity of the shafts. Tarsi
feathered anteriorly for an inch, and thence protected by 12
tiled scales ; length, 22 inches ; alar expanse, 44 inches.

F. hyemalis, Winter falcon or red shouldered hawk.

F. hyemalis, adult male of Audubon and Wilson.

F. Uneatus, young male of Audubon.

Buteo\Poecilopternis) lineatus. Gmelin ? Jardine !
T.S.p. Bill blackish, cere and legs yellow ; irides reddish
hazel.

Dorsal aspect. Feathers on the head and neck acuminate
brown, edged with ferruginous and black shafts; on the back and
rump dark brown, edged with lighter brown ; small wing coverts
reddish brown, with a black stripe down their centres. Greater
wing coverts brown, with reddish brown tips ; primaries and
secondaries, dark brown, barred and tipped with white ; scapulars
of a lighter hue, barred also. Tail, umber brown, with 6 white
bars, and tipped with white.

Ventral aspect. Chin and throat like the head; prevailing
hue of breast and belly, femorals and wing linings, bright rufous
barred with white and shining brown shafts ; vent and tail coverts
cream white ; wing and tail surfaces brownish white, barred with
slate colour.

1st primary about two lines longer than the secondaries ; 2nd,
two lines longer than the 6th ; 3rd and 5th, equal; 4th, longest;
Can. Nat. 5 Vol. VII.

66 Dr, A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

wings about one inch shorter than the tail. This elegant bird
measures 22 inches, and has an alar expanse of 44 inches. The
above description is from a very perfect specimen in the author's
possession. Young " brown and ferruginous, beneath rusty slightly
varied with faint bars ; wings dusky and barred ; tail black,
crossed and tipped with 5 bands of white." (Nuttal.)

Buteo insignatus. (Cassin 1 Baird !) McCulloch's or the
Canada Buzzard.
D.c. Form robust ; wings rather long, 3rd quill longer, second-
aries emarginate at their tips ; quills unusually broad ; tail rather
short, slightly rounded ; tarsi feathered in front below joint;
naked behind, having in front 10 transverse scales; under wing
and tail coverts white, the former striped longitudinally with pale
ferruginous, and some of the transversal with dark brown ; the
latter with transverse slips of pale reddish brown.

Plumage of the tibia dark ferruginous mixed with brown ;
throat and a few feathers in front white, with narrow lines of
black ; entire other plumage above and below, dark brown, nearly
every feather having a darker or nearly black line on its shaft ;
quills above brown with a purple lustre, beneath pale ashy with
their shafts white, and irregularly barred with white near their
bases ; tail above dark brown, with an ashy or hazy tinge, and
having about 10 obscure bands of a darker shade of the same
colour beneath nearly white, with conspicuous bands of brown,
the widest of which is next the tip which is paler ; tarsi and feet
yellow. — Sex unknown. Dimensions. Total length, (of skin) 17
inches; wing 14|, making an alar expanse of 29j inches ; length
of tail, n\.

Hab. Canada, Dr. McCulloch and Dr. Hall. — Specimen in the
private collection of the 'late Dr. McCulloch, now possessed by
Mrs. McCulloch.

Frequently after having examined this bird, the late Dr.
McCulloch and myself considered it new, but we had no means
of verifying our opinion, until the visit of Prof. Cassin, of Phila-
delphia, in 1854. Dr. McCulloch fell a victim to the cholera dur-
inir its epidemic of that year, and the following spring it was for
warded to Mr. Cassin, in Philadelphia who identified it as a new
species. Only one specimen has as yet been obtained in this coun-
try, although Mr. Cassin has had the good fortune to secure a second
specimen, which now constitutes the representative of this Buteo
in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.

of the District of Montreal. 67

In colour it resembles, in some respects, the young of the Circu3
Hudsonius or ferrugineus. The specimen above described was
shot in the vicinity, I believe, of Terrebonne, and was brought to
the late Dr. McCulloch, by one of the farmers residing in that
neighborhood. It is evidently a very rare species, as this is the
only specimen of it which has been seen here. The foregoing
description I have taken from Prof. Cassin, who has described the
bird under its present name, " Buteo insignatus", in his valuable
work, " Illustrations of the birds of California, Texas, Oregon,
British and Russian America." In memory of the late Dr.
McCulloch, and his promotion of the study of the natural
sciences in this city, it should receive the name of McCulloch's
Buzzard, although Mr. Cassin has attached to it the name
of " Canada Buzzard."

F, Cyaneus, Hen harrier.

F. uliginosus. Wilson and Buonaparte I !

D.c. I have never met with a specimen of this bird, but from
its extensive geographical range, it ought to be an occasional
visitant with us. The following description is from Nuttal's
'* Ornithology of the United States and Canada."

"In the old male, the upper parts are of a blueish gray. The
quill feathers are white at their origin, and black the rest of their
length ; the internal part of the base of the wings, rump, belly,
sides, thighs, abdomen and beneath the tail is white without spots;
upper part of the tail of a cinereous gray, with the ends of the
feathers whitish ; iris and feet yellow; length 20 and 21 inches."

We desire only to add to our list of the Falconidae, which we
have endeavoured, with every care, to render as perfect and com-
plete as possible, that with the varying names given to the species
by authors, together with the differences in plumage, (sometimes
remarkable) between the male and female bird, and also between
that of the young bird and its parents, the greatest of difficulties
has originated and has unquestionably caused, in our opinion, some
mistakes in the nomenclature. With the exception of the Gull and
Tern tribes, to which we might add one or two other genera, we
know of none more diflScult of study, or identification than the
Hawks.

Genus Strix.

Gen. char. Bill compressed and curved from the base.
Ce*re more or less covered by stitf, erect hairs ; head large,
feathered ; nostrils lateral, rounded, open, and concealed by the

68 Dr, A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

hair of the cere; eyes large, orbits surrounded by feathers which
are erect, or in a stellated form around them, giving the appear-
ance of a flattened disk ; tarsi feathered, often as far as the talons;
feet 4-dactyle, three before and one behind ; outer toe versatile ;
3rd primary longest.

Suh-gen. Surnia,

Sub-gen. char. External auditory apertures oval — of moderate
size — naked — facial disk small and composed of slender feathers
which are repressed along the cheeks. This genus forms a con-
necting link between the hawks and true owls.
1st. Subdivision.

Heads without ears or tufts.

S.funerea. Hawk owl.
S. Hudsonia of Wilson.
Surnia ulula. Lemm. ! Bonap. ! Baird !

v.s.p. Ridge of the upper mandible yellow ; its inferior por-
tion, with the lower mandible black; claws black; irides bright
yellow ; eggs two, white.

Dorsal aspect. Hair-like feathers of the cere gray, with black
mucronate shafts ; facial disk composed of grayish white stiflf
feathers, bounded by black posteriorly ; upper surface of head
and neck deep blackish brown, with numerous white spots. Dorsal
region ; scapulars, wing coverts and rump, brown, with less
numerous white spots, except on the scapulars which appear
almost barred with white; tail rounded, brown, with seven im-
perfect white bars.

Ventral aspect. Chin grayish black ; the black line bounding
the facial disk, continued to the fore part of the neck ; behind
this a white streak, the feathers composing which are tipped
with black ; this again is bounded by another black line ; the two
black lines meeting behind the ear, and thence diverging to the
neck; breast, belly, and vent grayish white, intersected by numerous
narrow rusty brown bars ; under the wings, these bars assume a
darker tint, which is continued to the inner wing cover:s;
femorals and tarsals silky, of a dirty yellow colour and faintly
barred, the feathers continued to the extremities of the toes ; tail
itself brownish slate colour with distinct white bars; primaries
and secondaries barred internally ; the bars composed of white
spots on the vanes of all the feathers; the outer vane of the 1st.
primary has its barbs slightly recurved.

of the District of Mon treaL 6 9

3rd. primary longest; length 16 inches; alar expanse 28
inches. The female has the tints less clear, and the young bird
has the plumage of a rusty brown.

S. nyctea. Snowy owl.

S. Candida of Latham !

Nyctea nivea. Gray ! Baird !
v.s.p. ET V. Bill and claws blueish black ; irides bright yellow ;
eggs 2 white.

Dorsal asoect. Facial disk white ; head, neck and whole dorsal
region pure white, with more or less distinct umber brown, in
some instances, blackish bars ; rump and tail coverts white ; tail
white with three imperfect terminal blackish bars ; primaries and
secondaries white, with bars on the vanes of the former, and
black spots on the inner webs of the latter.

Ventral aspect. Throat, vent, tail coverts, wing linings, and
tail white ; breast and belly white barred like the back.

Nostrils large, oval, obliquely situated at the margin of the
cere ; femorals as long as the tarsus ; tarsus feathered to the
talons, the feathers here being long and soiled ; claws black, long,
curved, and very sharp ; 3rd primary longest ; 2nd, 3rd and 4th
have their outer vanes abruptly notched ; barbs of the outer vane
of the 1st primary have their points reverted and open. Length
25 inches ; alar expanse 54 inches. The female is a little larger
than the male, and more spotted. The old males are nearly
altogether pure white.

2nd Subdivision.

Heads furnished with ears.

S. ncevia. Mottled owl, or screech owl.

S. asiOf male. Audubon !

>S. a«*o of Linnoeus !

S. noevia of Wilson ! Adult.

Scojys asio. Bonaparte ! Baird !
v.s.p. Bill and claws white bone colour, the latter tipped with
black ; irides bright yellow ; at a distance the prevailing hue of
the bird is gi'^y.

Dorsal aspect. A near approach defines the facial disk to be
of a gray white colour, with a pale brown line on the upper
eyelid; the disk bounded by a black line meeting in the throat,
and terminating below the ears ; hair-like feathers of the cere,
very long ; anterior ones projecting considerably beyond the bill ;
upper part of the head and neck gray and brown, streaked with

70 Dr. A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

blackish brown — the streaks fading on the lower part of the neck \
dorsal region, rump, scapulars, (except the outer vanes of the outer
feathers which are white tipped with black,) and greater wing,
coverts, coloured like the head ; inner vanes of the primaries and
secondaries, light brown, with umber brown bars ; outer vanes of
the primaries ferruginous next the shaft, with white edges,
and barred like the inner vanes; outer vanes of the secondaries,
mottled and barred with brown, gray, and white ; tail dark
brown, with 7 or 8 bars of a reddish brown ; the bars being in-
distinct on the distal end, which is also mottled with brown.

Ventral aspect. Above and below the black streak on the
throat, white prevails ; breast and belly, gray white, with light
brown bars, and blackish brown streaks ; these streaks are very
large on the breast, and become narrower towards the vent ; vent
feathers white ; tail coverts generally white, with indications of
brown bars; the lateral feathers white and very silky; wing
coverts present the same characters ; quills slate colour, with gray
bars; femorals and tarsals silky, 4 or 5 inches long, and
slightly tipped with rufous superiorly ; toes feathered only to the
last joint; ears composed of 8 to 10 feathers coloured like those
on the head.

4th primary about a line longer than 3rd ; 3rd equal to 5th and
2d to 6th ; 1st primary not longer than the secondaries. " Outer
and inner vanes of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th primaries notched." 5th
notched on the outer vane. The barbs of the outer vanes of 1st
and 2d primaries revolute. Claws long, much curved ; inner edge
of the middle toe, salient, and very sharp, outer toe versatile.
Hind toe very short, shorter than the outer one. Middle toe lon-
gest. Length 13 inches; alar breadth 20 inches. I must observe
that the colours of this bird are much blended with one another,
and render the description of it no easy task. The female has a
prevailing reddish brown tint, streaked and barred with ash and
brown; face whitish; breast and belly whitish, with bars and
streaks of black and brown ; femorals and tarsals pale brown j
irides yellow, bill and claws greyish horn color. She lays 4 to
6 eggs, which are white and nearly round. The young bird is
tawny red, with narrow dark spots along the shafts of the feather.
Suh'genus Bubo.

Sub-gen. char. Beak strongly inclined from its base, nostrils
large, concealed; ears of moderate size. Facial disk tolerably dis-
tinct.

of the District of Montreal, 71

1st. Subdivision.
Heads with ears.
S. Virginianus. Great Horned Owl,
Bubo Virginianus. Gmelin ! BoDap! Baird!

v.s.p. «k V. Upper mandible black; lower one horn colour;*
claws pale at their insertion, changing to black towards their
tips, irides bright yellow. Eggs 2 to 4, white, large.

Dorsal aspect : — Facial disk immediately round and in front of
the orbits greyish black, bordered with reddish brown — the shafts
of the feathers being continued beyond the vanes, and forming a
kind of fringe. This frinire is bounded by a black border. Above
the eye the facial circle is incomplete. Ear-tufts of 10 to 12
feathers, black on the outer vanes, and mottled brown on the
inner vanes, the smaller posterior ones being wholly brown.
Crown,neck, back, rump, scapulars, and wing coverts black, mottled
with grey and brown, the light brown bases of the feathers ap-
pearing often through the black tips : the grey white on the back
having an undulatory appearance. Primaries and secondaries
mottled and barred, the inner vanes presenting on their quill
halves a fine reddish brown colour, barred with dark brown.
These vanes have a peculiar velvety feel, caused by a fine fringe
projecting from the superior outer margin of each barb. The
reddish brown almost changes to an orange on the secondaries.
Tail banded with six blackish brown bars ; the bars most
distinct on the inner vanes, which are reddish brown, while the
outer vanes, besides the bars, are much mottled with grey and
brown.

Ventral aspect. Chin \vhite, succeeded by a belt, which is
continuous with the black border of the facial disk. This belt is
succeeded by a crescentic spot of pure white, situated at the
lower part of the throat. A little below the crescent, and separ-
ated from it by an irregular line of black and brown, commences
a mesial line of pure white, broad at its commencement, gradually
contracting and terminating at the vent. On either side of this
line the feathers are white, barred with numerous fine zigzag de-
lineations of umber brown, with lighter edgings, the yellow
bases of the feathers appearing through them ; flank feathers about
6^ inches long, enveloping the thighs and forming a kind of
fringe underneath the tail ; they are much barred ; inner wing
coverts white, barred with umber brown ; tail light reddish brown,
distinctly barred ; femorals yellowish brown ; tarsal feathers

72 Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

whitish, barred with brown : of toes whitish and short with faint
delineations of darker brown bars ; toes feathered as far as the
last joint, the feathers projecting over it.

3rd primary longest ; 4th a little shorter ; barb of outer vane
of 1st primary revolute; length, 26^ inches; alar expanse 46j

inches.

2nd Subdivision.

Heads without ears.

S. cinerea. Great Grey or Cinereous owl.
S. Lapponica of Temmink.
Syrnium cinereum. Gmelin ! Audubon ! Baird.
v.s.p. Bill pale horn colour, thickly embedded in the cere
feather ; claws black ; irides yellow. Eggs 2, mottled with
blackish brown.

Dorsal aspect. Facial disk large and well developed, black for
a short space, immediately anterior to the orbits ; all the rest
grey, barred with a blackish brown ; the bars concentric, 6 to 7
in number ; disk bounded posteriorly by a circle of feathers, the
front ones of which are velvety and of a deep liver brown colour ;
posterior ones white, with a deep brown streak along the shaft.
Dorsal region, except the quill feathers of the wing and tail, blackish
brown, mottled and barred with white, more or less pure. Quill
feathers of the wing and tail blackish brown, barred with a lighter
brown and mottled with dirty white, 5 to 6 bars; on the tail
there is the same number of bars, but not well defined, composed
of alternate deep clove brown and white streaks, with mottled
whitish brown interstices. These raotlings are most distinct on
the two centre feathers.

Ventral aspect. Liver brown and white distributed in about
equal proportions, without regularity ; flank feathers brown, bar-
red with white ; wing and tail coverts dirty white, barred with
brown; tail and wings brownish slate colour, mottled and streaked
like the upper surface ; tarsal feathers long, impure white, barred
with brown; toes feathered as far as the origin of the claws;
claws long, not much curved, sharp and compressed beneath with
indications of a groove.

In the specimen before me the 6th primary is longest ; 4th and
5th equal ; 3rd about 2 lines shorter ; 2nd about an inch shorter
than 3rd, and the 1st equal to the secondaries, in consequence of
which the wing when expanded has a rounded appearance ; tail

of the District of Montreal. 73

rounded. Length 30 inches, alar expanse oQ inches. I believe it
to be a female. The distinctive character between the sexes is
rifling.

Suh-genus Ulula.

Sub-gen. char. Concha large, with a membranous operculum;
facial disk well developed.

1st Subdivision.
Head with ears.
S. otus. Long eared owl.
Otus Willsonianus. Lessen ! Baird.

v.s.p. Bill and claws black ; irides orange yellow ; eggs 4 to 5,
white and subrotund.

Dorsal aspect. Facial disk black, immediately in front of^
above and below the orbits; the black margin succeeded by
grey ; posterior parts ferruginous brown, inferiorly and posteriorly
margined with white, the feathers tipped with black ; auricular
ring composed of velvety white feathers, mottled aud tipped with
liver brown, the line thus formed meeting on the anterior part of
tae throat, where the white predominates ; dorsal region deep
brown, mottled and barred with white ; outer vanes of the scapu-
lars and greater wing coverts, with white spots and a single bar
of brown ; the quill half of the primaries, yellowish brown,
with brown bars; distal ends deep brown, with whitish bars,
mottled with brown ; tail like the primaries ; the yellowish
brown less distinct, and traversed by 11 bars of the dorsal colour,
with intermediate bars of a fainter tint bordered with dirty white ;
tail tipped with white.

Ventral aspect. White with clove brown streaks, mottles and
bars ; wing and tail coverts yellowish white ; quill half of prima-
ries and secondaries, yellowish white; distal half, slate brown,
with broad white bars ; tail, yellowish white, verging to slate at
its distal end and barred with deep slate brown ; femorals and
tarsals, yellowish brown ; toes feathered to the last joint.

2nd primary longest; 3rd next; 1st next; 4th next. Ears
long, composed of 8 to 10 feathers, black on the outer vanes,
white mottled with brown on the inner vanes; bart) of outer
vanes of 1st primary revolute,of 3rd and 4th a good deal intiexed.
Length 16,^ inches; alar expanse, 34 inches.

S. brachyotos. Short eared owl.

S. hrachyota of Latham !

Brachyotus Cassinii. Brewer! Baird!

74' Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

D.c. This is one of our most common owls, but unfortunately
at the time of writing, I cannot lay my hands on a specimen.
The following is from Nuttall : " Ear-like tufts inconspicuous, of
2 or 3 very short feathers ; general colour, ochreous, spotted with
blackish brown ; face round the eyes blackish ; tail without 5
bands, not extending beyond the tips of the wings ; female with
the general tints paler. In the young the face is blackish. Length
13 to 15 inches. Head of old bird small ; tail ochreous, with small
bands, and tipped with white ; beneath Isabella yellow, with
longitudinal spots of blackish brown ; bill black ; feet and toes
feathered : iris of a bright yellow."

2nd Subdivision.

Heads without ears.

S. nehulosa. Barred owl.

Syrnium nehulosum. Gray ! Baird.

v.s.p. ET V. Upper mandible yellow ; lower one blueish black,
except where it closes against the upper one; claws blueish black.
Eggs 4 to 5, white ; irides deep blue, verging to black.

Dorsal aspect. Facial disk in front of the orbits black, bounded
by greyish white ; all the other parts brownish grey, posteriorly
barred and tipped with brown. A line of brown feathers, tipped
and barred with white, bounds the facial disk and meets on the
throat. Head, neck, back, rump, tail, scapulars, coverts, prim-
aries and secondaries, liver brown, barred with white, which
has a yellow tinge. These bars are most numerous on the neck,
and most distinct on the back ; those of the wings and tail have a
brownish tinge, about 5 in number on the latter, and tipped with
the same colour, and 5 or 6 on the wings composed of spots
which are darker on the outer vanes.

Vental aspect. Chin brown ; neck below the brown line con-
tinued from the facial disk, white, succeeded by white barred with
liver brown. A single bar occurs on each feather, which is also
tipped with the same. The bars change to streaks on the breast
and belly ; vent and tail coverts and wing coverts yellowish white,
the second and last with narrow, brown specks ; tail slate colour,
with 5 bars; wings same, barred; femorals and tarsals short, yellow-
ish white, with a faint barring ; toes feathered to the last joint.

Claws long, not much curved but very sharp ; claw of the mid-
dle toe longest, with a salient sharp inner ridge ; hind toe com-
pressed ; 4th and 5th primaries equal, if anything 5th longest ;

of the District of MoyitreaL 75

3rd and 6th equal ; 2nd and Yth equal ; 1st shorter than the
secondaries ; barbs of the outer vanes of 1st and 2nd primaries
revolute ; barbs of the outer vanes of 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th revo-
lute at their tips ; inner vanes of 2nd and 3rd, and outer vanes of
2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th notched ; tail rounded. Length 24
inches ; alar expanse 42 inches. The female and young scarcely
differ from the male.

In Richardson's description of the comparative lengths of the
primaries of this bird, there appears to me to be an error. I have
verified mine in several specimens, and find it differing substan-
tially from his. And so far from the toes being "only half
covered with feathers," in all the specimens that I have seen, they
are distinctly covered to the last joint, the feathers thence pro-
truding over the talons, and but 4 transverse scales appearing
beyond this line, instead of 7 as mentioned by our author. I am
inclined to the belief, that the remarks made by him at the end
of his description of this bird in his Fauna, must have been de-
rived from an imperfect specimen.

S. Tengmalmi. Tengmalm's owl.
S. Passerina ? "Wilson I

v.s.p. Upper and lower mandibles black, with the ridge of
the former white ; claws black ; irides yellow ; eggs 2, white.

Dorsal aspect. Facial disk, black in front of and below the
orbits ; below and posteriorly white, bordered by blackish grey,
bounded by a line of deep velvety brown, mottled with white,
and meeting on the anterior part of the throat, where the white
predominates, and thence continued upwards to the chin, separated
by a msesial line of brown, and downwards for a little distance to
the breast ; crown and occiput liver brown, with white spots —
these latter most numerous on the crown, and larger and more
distinct on the occiput and nape of neck. The dorsal region liver
brown, variegated with white spots, which are largest on the
scapulars, on some of which a pair may be seen, but most gener-
ally, a single one is met with on the outer vane, of a round shape.
Primaries marked by 5 rounded white spots on their outer vanes,
and 5 correspondent linear bars on the inner ones ; bars broad-
est on the secondaries ; tail with 5 imperfect white bars, made
up of oval spots on their outer, and of lines on their inner vanes.

Ventral aspect. Below the throat the prevailing tint is liver
brown, mixed with nearly an equal quantity of white — the former
colour predominating on the sides, and the latter on the middle

76 Dr. A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

parts; wing linings and tail coverts dead white, with imperfect
brown marks ; wings and tail slate colour, with white spots cor-
responding to those on the upper surface; femorals and tarsals
yellow white, with dark brown bars, the tarsals continued to
toes as far as the insertion of the talons.

3rd primary longest ; 2nd, 4th and 5th subequal ; 1st and Yth
equal ; outer barb of the 1st primary revolute ; tail square.
Length 12 inches ; alar breadth 20 inches.

Eichardson refers the S. Passerina to the S. Tenpmalmi, on
no other grounds than a similarity in the plumage of the head.
The two birds, however, are totally distinct ; the S. Passerina
not only being much smaller than the S. Tengmalmi, but differs
also from it in its ventral plumage, which is wholly brown, and
moreover, has but three white bars on the tail, whereas the S.
Tengmalmi has five. A greater difficulty, however, occurs in the
distinctive characters between the S. Balhousii, S. Passerina^ and
>S^. Acadica^ which resemble one another in nearly all their essen-
tial points. Might not the trifling varieties which are found to
exist between them be the result of ao-e ? Nuttal refers the
S» Passerina to the S. Acadica, to which I feel also much in-
clined to refer the S, Dalhousii. A degree of uncertainty, how-
ever, at the best, hangs over these species, which it would require
a comparative examination of numerous specimens of different
ages and sexes to clear up. The two following species agree
with the plates of the respective birds, as figured in Wilson and
Buonaparte's splendid work. The descriptions of both of them
are taken from prepared specimens, shot in the vicinity of Mon-
treal in 1837.

S. Acadica. Acadian owl. ,

S. passerina ? Wilson !

S. Dalhousii? Audubon!

S. Acadica of Bonaparte ;

Nyctale Acadica, Gmelin 1 Bonap. ! Baird !
v.s.p. Bill and claws black ; the former tipped with white at
the apex of the upper mandible ; irides pale yellow.

Dorsal aspect. Facial disk, white superiorly, and black ante-
riorly and posteriorly, with a few white feathers inferiorly ; bounded
posteriorly by brown feathers, tipped with white, forming a line
which meets immediately below the chin ; frontlet yellowish
white ; crown and nape of neck liver brown, (which is the pre-
vailing dorsal tint) with indications of, or imperfect, white streaks

of the District of Montreal, 77

especially on the nape of neck. A white spot tinged with yellow
on the outer vanes of the scapulars and wing coverts ; 3 or 4
white spots on the outer vanes of the primaries, which are rudi-
mentary on the 1st, and form bars on the inner vanes ; tail with two
white bands, tipped with white ; the bars made up like those on
the wings.

Ventral aspect. Breast and throat liver brown, distinctly
defined ; lower part of the breast and belly, reddish brown ; tail and
wing coverts whitish ; quills of both slate coloured, barred with
white ; femorals and tarsals yellowish white, short, and continued
almost like hair along the toes, as far as the talons.

Toes long and slender ; middle toe, with the claw, 8 lines long;
claws long, slender, very slightly grooved, except on middle
toe, which has a salient sharp inner edge. Inferior surface of
the talons compressed ; wings much rounded when extended ;
3rd and 4th primaries equal ; 2nd and 5th equal ; 1st and 8th
equal; tail square. Length 8^ inches; alar expanse 16 inches.
(Probably a female.)

S. Balhousii. Dalhousie's owl.

v.s.p. The whole appearance very much resembling the former
species.

Dorsal aspect. Facial disk dirty white round the orbit, except
anteriorly, where it is blackish ; extremities of the facial disk
brown ; auricular ring like that of the former ; crown and nape
of neck liver brown, streaked with white, the white streak being
along the centre of each feather ; scapulars, wing coverts, wings
and tail, like the >S'. Acadica ; the spots on the inner vanes of the
primaries, however differing from those on the S. Acadica, in
being oval, and scarcely presenting the appearance of bars.

Ventral aspect. Breast and belly streaked with reddish bi-own
and white, instead of being wholly brown as in the former.

3rd primary longest ; 2nd and 4th equal ; 1st and 8th equal;
resmbles the former in all its other characters.
S. Kirtlandii. Kirtland's Owl.

Nyctale Kirtlandica. Hog ! Cassin !

This rare, beautiful, and diminutive of the owl tribe was caught
alive in a grain store in this city a few years ago by Mr; Hunter,
Taxidermist to the Natural History Society. It was identified
through the instrumentality of Prof. Cassin's work on " The birds
of California, Texas, Oregon, and British and Russian America."
It is there mentioned as an inhabitant of the State of Wisconsin,
by Dr. Hog, who first described it, having obtained his specimens

78 Dr. Hunt on the Taco7iic System of Emmons.

four in number, in the neighbourhood of Racine in that State. I
am happy to have had it in my power to add it to the list of Owls.

v.s.p. Bill black and nearly concealed by small feathers and
black bristles arising from its base. Irides yellow. Above eyes
and on each side of bill a dirty white line ; remainder of the front
composed of chocolate brown feathers edged with dirty white,
their tips causing at the edge of the front a dirty white line. Fea-
thers behind eyes darkest. Tarsi feathered to extremities ot toes
with fine appressed ochrey colored feathers. Toes and claws long.

Dorsal aspect. Prevailing tint chocolate brown, relieved on
the scapulars, secondaries and primaries by whitish spots, on the
latter the spots existing on both the outer and inner veins, form-
ing 3 or 4 imperfect bars. Tail with three bars of white and
faintly tipped with the same color.

Ventral aspect. Chin and throat chocolate brown changing on
the abdomen, flanks, and inferior tail coverts, to an oohry color.
Under wing coverts whitish.

3rd primary longest, 2 and 4 subequal, 1 and 1 being about
equal. Wings rounded when expanded. Length from crown of
head to tip of tail 7^ inches. Alar expance 15 inches. The
whole plumage is peculiarly velvety to the feel.
(To be continued.)

ARTICLE V. — Note on the Taconic System of Emmons; by
T. Sterry Hunt, M.A., F.R.S.

In a notice of the Taconic rocks in the last volume of this
Journal, (p. 379,) it was explained that Emmons asserts that in
going eastward from the line of fault which brings up the Taconic
group to overlie the Trenton and Loraine formations, we meet suc-
cessively with lower rocks, all dipping eastward, until in the Green
Mountain gneiss we have a rock which is older than the Taconic
group ; so that the newest rocks appear to be at the base, and
the oldest at the summit of the series. It was however main-
tained, in opposition to this view, that the apparent order of super-
position from the great fault, going eastward to the Green Moun-
tains is in the main, the true one, and that the black slates of Em-
mons, which he regards as the newest rock of his series, are really
the oldest; while the Green Mountain gneiss is a rock higher in
the series than any of those to the west of it.

These propositions we still maintain, but in explaining what
we conceive to be Mr. Emmons' error, we have said that in order
to explain this supposed inversion in the succession of the rocks, he

Dr, Hioit on the Tacoiiic System of Emmons. 79

imagines a great overturn of the whole series in question. In
this we have been misled by the language of Mr. Emmons,
which has caused him to be misinterpreted by others as
well. In speaking of the succession of rocks, he uses the term
"inverted strata," and Mr. Barrande has spoken of the " overturn
(renversement) of the whole system." Mr. Marcou, apparentlv as
the interpreter of Emmons, speaks of the strata in question as
having been " overturned {renversees) on each side of the crys-
talline and eruptive rocks which occupy the centre of the chain,
presenting thus a fan-shaped structure, and all the accidents which
accompany a complete overturn of a whole system of strata," so
that in going eastward towards the centre of the chain, we find
that the most recent strata appear to be placed beneath the most
ancient, "in consequence of an overturn {renversement).'''' Comjytes
Rendus de VAcad. xliii. 804.

Now in justice to Mr. Emmons it should be said, that despite
his use of the expression " inverted strata," he has never main-
tained any inversion or overturn, as a careful examination of his
descriptions will show. (Taconic St/stem. p. 17). He supposes
that during the accumulation of the Taconic rocks, the gneiss
which formed the eastern limit of the basin was progressive^'
elevated, so as to successively bring the older members above the
ocean from which the sediments were being deposited ; and that
the upper parts of the formation, such as the black slates, were
thus confined to a narrow basin, and never extended far eastward ;
at the same time he conceives that denudation may have removed
large portions of the upper beds. At a subsequent period a series
of parallel faults, with upthrows to the eastward, is supposed to
have broken the strata, given them their eastward dip, and caused
the older beds to overlap the inner ; thus giving rise not to an in-
version of the strata, but to an apparent inverted succession. Now
we find in Canada abundant evidence that the slates which Em-
mons regards as the newest, are really near the base of the series,
and cannot consequently admit his hypothesis to explain an order
of things which we conceive to have no existence.

The careful study of the region in question shows, that although
such a great upthrow and overlap does bring the Quebec group to
the surface from beneath the higher rocks, to the east of this fault
undulations, overturns, and downthrows to the eastward, diversify,
with eastern upthrows, the structure of this complicated region.
The gneiss of the Green Mountains, like that of the Scottish High-
lands and like the granite of the summits of the Alps, is the newest

80 Miscellaneous,

rock of the chain, the structure of all these mountain regions being
synclinal, as we have endeavoured to show in the case of the Alps,
{SilUman's Journal {2) xxix. 118,) and as Sir Roderick Murchison
has beautifully represented in his late section across the Scottish
Highlands. (See his new Geol. Map of Scotland).

MISCELLANEOUS.

CHROMIC IRON ORE AND ASBESTUS.
We copy from a late number of the Chemical News, the fol-
lowing notice of the chromic iron and asbestus from the vicinity
of Baltimore, lately imported into England. It is known to many
of our readers that the Geological Survey has already shewn the
existence in several parts of the Eastern Townships, and in Gaspe,
of large deposits of this valuable ore, equal in richness to the
samples from the United States : — " The amount of sesqui-oxide of
chromium in the present ore, as determined by Dr. Genth, is stated
to be equivalent to 63 per cent, of chromic acid — a mode of ex-
pressing the value of the ore by the quantity of chromic acid
produced on fusion with an alkali, and not that of the green sesqui-
oxide actually contained therein. Ore of this superior description
may be obtained in casks ready for shipment, at the rate of about
one dollar for each one per cent, of chromic acid per ton, and in
quantities of about 200 tons annually. It is, however, considered
more judicious to work this ore in admixture with other qualities
which are produced in greater abundance, — 1500 tons annually, —
the average composition of such samples furnishing usually
about 50 per cent of chromic acid. The ore last described
was accompanied by specimens of asbestus, and of paper con-
taining about one-third proportion of the same. This mineral
may be procured at the rate of 1^ cents per pound, — a low
price considering the high quality of the article offered. The
specimen sent is beautifully white, and the fibres are long and
delicate. It has been tried in America for paper-making and for
the manufacture of steam-packing, in both of which applications
it is said to be very serviceable. Its property of resisting heat,
and its bad conducting power, would render this material particu-
larly valuable in connection with steam machinery. The sheet
of paper sent is a portion of an experimental manufacture ; it
burns with flame, leaving a white incombustible residue, which,
with careful management, retains the form of the original sheet ;
the weight of ash amounting precisely to 30 per cent."

MOXTIILY METEOKOLOGICAL KEGISTER, ST. MARTINS, ISLE JESUS, CANADA EAST, (NINE MILES WEST OF MONTREAL,) FOR THE MONTH
Latitude, 45 degrees 32 minutes North. Longitude, 73 degrees 36 minutes West. Heigljt above the level of the Sea, 118 feet.
BY CHAKLES SMALLWOOD, M.D., LL.D.

OF DECEMBER, 1861.

=

T

-"-' - '1 -. (1 -R ''

1

^"S '^f.T "'"

Tempwature

Of the

Tension of Aqueous

Humidity of the
Atmosphere.

Direction of Wiud. 1

^-'' ^^^ ^ — ; —

[A cloudy sky is represented by 10, a cloudless one by 0.]

*?

(Enilish inches >

-' ■■ ':''', '1 ind™.

i

29 5U

6a m

10 pm

6am

2pn.

10 p. in.

2 p.m.

10 p. m.

Ca.m. ' 2,..m. i in p. m.

6 a.m.

2 p.m.

10 p.m.

sol

"5

22 2

2^4

El

120
081

117

oos

i
1

171

i

1
1

•i

.87

1'^':: ■ ' '■■ ' '■ ' '■■ '

k

|£str. 10.
C. C. Str. 4.

Cu. Str. 10.

'I|

30 147
2J I)!?

2^

fi

20 (I
3b 2

1

212
11

i

i

1
079

ii

1

rJ:

cXr. lo'.

Cu.Str. 10.

Kain. ^°'
Jir.Cu. Str? 8.

1

'

i

150

:8o

.30

v.'n.e.

221..™ 1 ;: i

\'£ ;: !;:■:::-■■ -^-

Clear. Inapp. halo Aurora Boreal.
3. O^Str. 10.

oSf' 4. and Halo.

1

.77

:7i

1

-

1

0^^

096

036
036

.'78
Jl

.S.byli.' .sVe. N.N.E.

C.C.Str. lS:P.halo.||S;^ ^^^
girstr. . ptr. 10.

—

m?T>A

REPORT FOR THE MONTH OF JANUARY, 1862.

Bai ometer— coriLCtcd
and reduced to

(Engltsh inches )

Tension of Aqueous

■«||

[A cloudy sly is represented b

I cloudless one by

s.'s.'vv. " |W.
W. N. W. W.

REMARKS FOR DECEMBER, 1861.

rHishcst.the 12tli day, 30-372 inclies.
\ Lo%vest, the 23rd day. 23.378 "
• ■) Monthly Mean. 29.892

,■ lTir!;~=f the stli dnv, 4G»9.

minutes.
Most prevalent wind, W. S. W.

r,ca~tVrfval>;nt «iiul, the N.

"'':,,'!; 'i

.ra.

2

p.m.

10 p. m.

'-" ri;:::::

Rain.

Clrar. "pa

„t^'uroraB„r..,is. '

6.

Ou. Str.

4.

rlLr"''

8.

" ' ' ^i:.;.' rr„

t.

'^;ulVr.

10.

oi;;^ir.

W

inoM.

Clear.'

Clear.

10.

?rs;r

10

10.

Oiea'r.

cK'

Snow.

:::::::;::::

^-

10.

"-"^■' |:i|

.%

the weight of ash amounting precisely to 30 per cent.

THE

CANADIAN

MTUEALIST AND GEOLOGIST.

Vol. VIL APRIL, 1862. No. 2.

ARTICLE Yl.— Notes on the Flora of the White Mountains,
in its Geographical and Geological relations. By J. W.
Dawsok, LL.D., F.G.S.

(Read before the Montreal History Society.)

The group of the White Mountains is the culminating point of
the northern division of the great Appalachian range, extending
from Tennessee to Gaspe in a south-west and north-east direc-
tion, and constituting the breast-bone of the North American con-
tinent. This great ridge or succession of ridges has its highest
peaks near its southern extremity, in the Black Mountains ; but
these are little higher than their northern rivals, which at least
hold the undisputed distinction of being the highest hills in north-
eastern America. As Guyot* has well remarked, the White
Mountains do not occur in the general line of the chain, but rather
on its eastern side. The central point of the range, represented by
the Green Mountains and their continuation, describes a great curve
from Gaspe to the valley of the Hudson, and opposite the middle
of the concave side of this curved line toweis the almost isolated
group of the White Hills. On the other side is the narrow val-
ley of Lake Champlain, and beyond this the great isolated mass
of the Adirondack Mountains, nearly approaching in the altitude
of their highest peaks, and greatly exceeding in their geological

* Silliman's Journal.
Can. Nat. 6 Vol. VII

82 Dr. Dawson on the Flora

age, the opposite White Mountain group. The Appalachian
range is thus in this part of its course, supported on either side by
outliers higher than itself.

My present purpose is not to give a general geographical or
geological sketch of the White Mountains, but to direct attention
to the vegetation which clothes their summits, and its relation to
the history of the mountains themselves. For this purpose I may
first shortly describe the appearances presented in ascending the
highest of them, Mount Washington, and then turn to the special
points to which these notes relate.

In approaching Mount Washington by the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, the traveller has ascended from the valley of the St. Law-
rence to a height of 802 feet at the Alpine House at Gorham.
Thence in a distance of about 8 miles along the bank of the Pea-
body River, to the Glen House, he ascends to the elevation of
1632 feet above the sea ; and it is here or immediately opposite
the Glen House, that the actual ascent begins. The distance
from the Peabody River, opposite the hotel, to the summit is
nine miles, and in this distance we ascend 4656 feet, the total
height being 6288 feet above the sea.* Formerly only a bridle
path led up this ascent ; but last year a regularly| graded and ad-
mirably finished carriage road was opened, by which visitors can
drive comfortably to the top and back without any of the fatigue
formerly experienced. This enterprise, almost |Worthy of com-
parison with the great roads over the passes of fthe^Alps, was un-
dertaken several years ago by a joint-stock company, and has at
length been finished, at a cost, T believe, of $40,000, the interest
on which it is hoped will be paid by the tolls levied on travellers,
whose annual numbers are estimated at about 5000 for this road*
This royal road to the summit is however by|far too democratic
for the taste of some visitors, who mourn the olden days^of po-
nies, guides, and adventures ; and though it gives an excellent
view of the geological structure of the mountain, it does^not afford
a good opportunity for the study of the alpine flora, which is one
of the chief attractions of Mount Washington. For this reason^
though I availed myself of the new road for gaining a general
idea of the features of the group, I determined to ascend by
Tuckerman's ravine, a great chasm in the mountain side, named
in honour of the indefatigable botanist of the North American

* According to Guyot, but some recent surveys make it^a^little higher j

of the White Mountains, • 83

lichens.* I was aided in this by the kindness of a gentleman of
Boston, well acquainted with these hills, and passionately fond of
their scenery. Our party, in addition to this gentleman and my-
self, consisted of two ladies, two children, and two experienced
guides, whose services were of the utmost importance, not only in
indicating the path, but in removing windfalls and other obstruc-
tions, and in assisting members of the party over difficult and
dangerous places.

We followed the carriage road for two miles, and then struck off
to the left by a bridle path that seemed not to to have been used
for several years — the gentlemen and guides on foot, the ladies and
children mounted on the sure-footed ponies used in these ascents.
Our path wound around a spur of the mountain, over rocky and
uneven ground, much of the rock being mica slate, with beautiful
cruciform crystals of andalusite, which seemed larger and finer
here than in any other part of the mountain which I visited. At
first the vegetation was not materially different from that of the
lower grounds, but as we gradually ascended we entered the
" evergreen zone," and passed through dense thickets of small
spruces and firs, the ground beneath which was carpeted with
moss, and studded with an immense profusion of the delicate little
mountain wood-sorrel (^Oxalis acetosellci), a characteristic plant
of wooded hills on both sides of the Atlantic, and which I had
not before seen in such profusion since I had roamed on the hills
of Lochaber Lake in Nova Scotia. Other herbaceous plants were
rare, except ferns and club-mosses ; but we picked up an aster (^,.
acuminatus)^ a golden rod, (^Solidago thyrsoidea), and the very
pretty tway blade [Listera cor data).

In ascending the mountain directly, the spruces of this zone
gradually degenerate, until they present the appearance of little
gnarled bushes, flat on top and closely matted together, so that
except where paths have been cut, it is almost impossible to pene-
trate among them. Finally they lie flat on the ground, and be-
come so small that, as Lyell remarks, the rein-deer moss may be
seen to overtop the spruces. This dwarfing of the spruces and
firs is the eftect of adverse circumstances, and of their struggle
to extend their range toward the summit. Year by year they

• Dr. Bigelow and Prof. Tuckerman have been the chief botanical ex-
plorers of the White Mountains ; though Pursh was the first to determine
some of the more interesting plants, and Peck, Booth, Oakes and othera,
deserve honourable mention.

§4 • Dr, Daimon on the Flora

stretch fortli their roots and branches, bending themselves to the
ground, clinging to the bare rocks, and availing themselves of
every chasm and fissure that may cover their advance : but the
conditions of the case are against them. If their front advances
in summer it is driven back in winter, and if in a succession of
mild seasons they are able to gain a little ground, less favourable
seasons recur, and wither or destroy the holders of their advanced
positions. For thousands of years the spruces and firs have striven
in this hopeless escalade, but about 4000 feet above the sea seems
to be the limit of their advauce, and unless the climate shall
change, or these trees acquire a new plasticity of constitution, the
genus Abies can never displace the hardier alpine inhabitants
above, and plant its standard on the summit of Mount Wash-
ington.

I was struck by the similarity of this dwarfing of the upper
edges of the spruce woods, to that which I have often observed on
the exposed northern coasts of Cape Breton and Prince Edward
Island, where the woods often gradually diminish in height to-
ward the beach or the edge of a clifi", till the external row of
plants clings closely to the soil, or rises above it only a few inches.
The causes are the same, but the appearance is more marked on
the mountain than on the coast.

On the path which we followed, before we reached the upper
limit of trees, we arrived at the base of a stupendous cliff", forming
the termination of a promontory or spur of the mountain, sepa-
rating Tuckerman's ravine from another deep depression known
as the Great Gulf. From the top of this precipice poured a little
cascade that lost itself in spray long before it touched the tops of
the trees below. The view at this place was the most impressive
that it was my fortune to see in these hills.

0[)posite the mouth of the Great Gulf, and I suppose at a height
of about 3000 feet, is a little pond known as Hermit Lake. It
is nearly circular, and appears to be retained by a ridge of stones
and gravel, perhaps an old moraine or sea beach. On its margin
piped a solitary sand-piper, a few dragon flies flitted over its sur-
face, and tadpoles in the bottom indicated that some species of
frog dwells in its waters. High over head and skirting the edges
f the precipices, soared an eagle, intent no doubt on the hares
that frequent the thickets of the ravines.

Before we reached Hermit Lake we had been obliged to leave
^our horses, and now we turned aside to the left and entered

of the While Moimtains. 85

Tuckerman's ravine, where there is no path, but merely the bed
of a brook, whose cold clear water tumbles in a succession of
cascades over huge polished masses of white gneiss, while on both
sides of it the bottom of the ravine is occupied by dense and al-
most impenetrable thickets of the mountain alder (Alnus viridis.)
Tuckerman's ravine has been formed originally either by a
subsidence of a portion of the mountain side or by the action of
the sea. It is, like most of the ravines and '* gulfs " of these
hills, a deep cut or depression bounded by precipitous sides, and
terminating at the top in a similarly precipitous manner. It
must at one period have been in part filled with boulder clay,
steep banks of which still remain in places on its sides ; and ex-
tensive landslips have occurred, by which portions of the liniiting
cliflfs have been thrown toward the centre of the valley, in large
piles of angular blocks of gneiss and mica slate, in the spaces
between which grow gnarled birches and spruces that must be
used as ladders and bridges whereby to scramble from block to
block, by every one who would cross or ascend one of these rivers
of stones.

At the head of the ravine we paused to rest, to admire the wild
prospect presented by the ravine and its precipitous sides, and
to collect the numerous plants that flower on the surrounding
slopes and precipices. Here on the 19th of August were several
large patches of snow, one of them about an hundred yards in
length. From the precipice at the head of the ravine, poured
hundreds of little rills, and several of them collecting into a brook,
had excavated in the largest mass of snow a long tunnel or
cavern with an arched and groined roof. Under the front of
this we took our mid-day meal, with the hot August sun pouring
it^ rays in front of us, and icy water gurgling among the stones
at our feet. Around the margin of the snow the vegetation pre-
sented precisely the same appearances which are seen in the low
country in March and April, when the snow banks have just
disappeared — the old grass bleached and whitened, and many
perennial plants sending up blanched shoots which had not yet
experienced the influence of the sunlight.

The vegetation at the head of this ravine and on the precipices
that overhang it, presents a remarkable mixture of lowland and
mountain species. The head of the ravine is not so high as the
limit of trees already stated, but its steep sides rise abruptly to a
plateau of 5000 feet in height intervening between Mount Wash-

86 Dr, Dawson on the Flora

ington and Mount Munro, and on which are the dark ponds or
tarns known as the Lakes of the Clouds, forming the sources of
the Amonoosook river, which flows in the opposite direction.
From this plateau many alpine plants stretch downward into
the ravine, while lowland plants availing themselves of the
shelter and moisture of this cul-de-sac, climb boldly upward
almost to the higher plateau. Other species again occur here
which are found neither on the exposed alpine summits and
ridges nor in the low country. Conspicuous among the hardy
climbers are two coarse and poisonous weeds of the river valleys,
that look like intruders into the company of the more dwarfish
alpine plants ; — the cow-parsnip {Heracleum lanatum) and the
white hellebore ( Veratrum viride). Both of these plants were seen
struggling up through the ground at the margin of the snow,
and climbing up moist hollows almost to the top of the preci-
pices. Some specimens of the latter were crowded with the in-
fant caterpilars of a mountain butterfly or moth. Less conspicuous,
and better suited to the surrounding vegetation, were the bluets
( Oldenlandia coerulea)^ now in blossom here as they had been
months before in the low country, the dwarf cornel ( Cornus Can-
adensis)^ and the twin-flower {Linncea borealis), the latter
reaching quite to the plateau of the Lake of the Clouds, and en-
tering into undisputed companionship with the truly alpine plants,
though it is also found at Gorham four thousand feet lower.

Of the plants which seemed to be confined or nearly so to the
upper part of the ravine, one of the most interesting was the
northern painted cup, {Castelleia septentrionalis) a plant which
abounds on the coast of Labrador and extends thence through all
Arctic North America to the Rocky Mountains, and is perhaps
identical with the C Sibirica of Northern Asia and the C. pallida
of Northern Europe. Large beds of it were covered with their pale
yellow blossoms on the precipitous banks overhanging the head of
the ravine. With the painted cup and here alone, was another
beautiful species of a very difierent order, the northern green
orchis, (^Platanthera hyperhorea) a plant which occurs, though
rarely, in Canada, but is more abundant to the northward. Here
also occurred. Peck's geum, {G. radiatum, var.), Arnica mollis^
and several other interesting plants.

Of the Alpine plants which descend into the ravine, the most
interesting was the Greenland sandwort, (Arenaria [Alsine)
Groenlandica) which was blooming abundantly, with its clusters

of the White Mountains, 87

of delicate white flowers, on the very summit of the mountain,
and could be found here and there by the side of the brook in the
bof torn of the ravine.

Clambering by a steep and dangerous path up the right side
of the ravine, we reach almost at once the limit beyond which
the ordinary flora of New England can extend no longer, and are
in the presence of a new group of plants comparable with those
of Labrador and Greenland. Here, on the plateau of the Lake
of the Clouds, the traveller who has ascended the giddy preci-
pices overhanging Tuckerman's ravine, is glad to pause that he
may contemplate the features of the new region which he has
reached. "We have left the snow behind us, except a small
patch which lingers on the shady side of Mount Munro ; for it is
only in the ravines into which it has drifted an hundred feet
deep or more, that it can withstand the summer heat until
August. We stand on a dreary waste of hard angular blocks of
mica slate and gneiss, that lie in rude ridges as if they had been
roughly raked-up by Titans who might have been trying to pile
Monro upon Washington; but which seem to be merely the
remains of the original outcropping edges of the rocks broken up
by the frost, but not disturbed or rounded by water. Behind us
is the deep trench-like ravine out of which we have climbed :
on the left hand a long row of secondary summits stretching out
from Mount Washington to the south-westward, and designated
by the names of a series of American statesmen. In front this
range descends abruptly in great wooded spurs or buttresses to
the valley of the Amonoosook which shines in silvery spots through
the trees far below. On our right hand towers the peak of Mount
Washington, still more than a thousand feet above us, and covered
with angular blocks, as if it were a pile of fragments rather than a
solid rock. These stones all around and up to the summit of the
mountain, are tinted pale green by the map lichen (Lecidea Geogra-
phica) which tinges in the same way the alpine summits of European
mountains. Between the blocks and on their sheltered sides nestle
the alpine flowering plants, of which 20 species or more may be
collected on this shoulder of the mountain, and some of which ex-
tend themselves to the very summit, where Alsine Groenlandica
and the little tufts of deep green leaves of Diapensia Lapponica
with a few Carices seem to luxuriate. Animal life accompanies
these plants to the summit, near which I saw a family of the
snow bird {Plectrophanes nivalis) evidently summer resident*

88 Dr» Dawson on the Flora

here, and a number of insects, conspicuous among which was a

brown butterfly of the genus Hipparchia, Shortly before sun-
down, when the thermometer at the summit house was fast set-
tling toward the freezing point, a number of swallows were hawk-
ing for flies at a great height above the highest peak. To
what species they belonged I could not ascertain. Possibly the
cliflF swallows find breeding places in the sides of the ravines, and
rise over the hill top to bask in the sunbeams, after the mountain
has thrown its shadows over their homes.

To return to the alpine flora which is peculiar to the peaks of
these mountains — are the species comprising it autochthones
originating on these hill tops and confined to them, or are they
plants occurring elsewhere, and if so where ; and how and when
did they migrate to their present abodes ? These are questions
which must occur to every one interested in geology, botany, or
physical geography. They have been answered in various ways;
but without entering into controversy, I shall merely state a few
facts, bearing on and illustrating that view which I myself prefer.

Not one of the alpine plants of Mount Washington is peculiar
to the place. Nearly all of them are distinct from the plants of
the neighboring lowlands, but they occur on other hills of New
England and New York, and on the distant coasts of Labrador
and Greenland, and some of them are distributed over the Arctic
regions of Europe, Asia and America. In short they are strag-
glers from that Arctic flora which encompasses the north polar
region, and extends in promontories and islands, along the high
cold mountain summits far to the southward.

Some of the humble flowerless plants of these hills are of nearly
world wide distribution. I have already noticed the pale green
map lichen which tints the rocks of the Pyrenees, the Alps, and
the Scottish Highlands ; and the curious ring lichen {Parmelia
centrifuga) paints its conspicuous rings and arcs of circles
alike on Mount Washington and the Scottish hills. A little club
moss {Lycopodium selago) is not only widely distributed over
the northern hemisphere, but Hooker has recognised it in the
Antarctic regions. Not long ago we unrolled in Montreal an
Egyptian mummy preserved in the oldest style of embalming,
and found that, to preserve the odour of the spices, quantities of
a lichen (Evernia furfuracea) had been wrapped around the
body and had no doubt been imported into Egypt from Lebanon
or the hills of Macedonia for such uses. Yet the specimens

of the White Mountains, 89

from this old mummy were at once recognised by Professor
Tuckerman as identical with this species, as it occurs on the
White Hills and on Katahdin in Maine. These facts are how-
ever easily explicable in comparison with those that relate to the
flowering plants.

The spores of lichens and mosses float lighter than the lightest
down in the air, and may be wafted over land and sea, and drop-
ped everywhere to grow where conditions may be favourable.
Had the Egyptian embalmer used some of the first created spe-
cimens of Evernia furfuraeea, it might easily within the three
thousand years or so since his work was done, have floated round
the world and established itself on the White Hills. But, as we
shall see, neither the time nor means would suffice for the flower-
ing plants. The only available present agency for the trans-
mission of these would be in the crops or plumage of the migratory
birds ; and when we consider how few of these on their migra-
tions from the north could ever alight on these hills, and the
rarity of their carrying seeds in a state fit to vegetate, and further
that few of these plants produce fruits edible by birds, or seeds
likely to attach themselves to their feathers, the chances become
infinitely small of their transmission in this way. The most pro-
fitable course of investigation in this and most other cases of ap-
parently unaccountable geographical distribution, is to inquire as
to the past geological conditions of the region, and how these
may have affected the migrations of plants.

The earlier geological history of these mountains far ante-
dates our existing vegetation. It belongs in the first instance to
the Lower Devonian period, in which the materials of these moun-
tains were accumulating, as beds of clay and gravel, in the sea
bottom. These were buried under great depths of newer de-
posits, and were baked and metamorphosed into their present
crystalline condition. Again heaved above the sea level, they
were hewn by the action of the waves to some degree into their
present forms, and constituted part of the nucleus of the Ameri-
can continent in the tertiary period. They were again with all
the surrounding land depressed under the sea in the newer Plio-
cene period, and in the Post-pliocene or modern, slowly upheaved
again to their present height. These last changes are those that
concern their present flora, and their relations to it are well stated
by Sir C. Lyell in the following passages from his interesting ac-
count of his ascent of Mount Washington in 1846.

90 Dr. Dawson on the Flora

" If we attempt to speculate on tlie manner in which the pecu-
liar species of plants now established on the ] highest summits of
the White Mountains, were enabled to reach those isolated spots,
while none of them are met with in the lower lands around, or
for a great distance to the north, we shall find ourselves trying
to solve a philosophical problem which requires the aid not of
botany alone but of geology, or a knowledge of the geographical
changes which immediately preceded the present state of the
earth's surface. We have to explain how an Arctic flora con-
sisting of plants specifically identical with those which in-
habit lands bordering the sea in the extreme north of America,
Europe and Asia, could get to the top of Mount Washington.
Now geology teaches us that the species living at present on the
earth are older than many parts of our existing continents ; that is
to say they were created before a large portion of the existing
mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, and seas were formed.
That such must be the case in regard to Sicily, I announced my
conviction in 1833, after first returning from that country, and a
similar conclusion is no less obvious to any naturalist who has
studied the structure of North America, and observed the wide
area occupied by the modern or glacial deposits, in which marine
shells of living but northern species are entombed. It is clear that
a great portion of Canada, and the country surrounding the great
lakes, was submerged beneath the ocean when recent species of
mollusca flourished, of which the fossil remains occur about 500
feet above the level of the sea at Montreal. Lake Champlain
was a gulf or strait of the sea at that period, large areas in Maine
were under water, and the White Mountains must then have con-
stituted an island or group of islands. Yet as this period is so
modern in the earth's history as to belong to the epoch of the
existing marine fauna, it is fair to infer that the Arctic flora now
contemporary with this was then also established on the globe.

" A careful study of the present distribution of animals and
plants over the globe, has led nearly all the best naturalists to the
opinion that each species had its origin in a single birth-place,
and spread gradually from its original centre to all accessible
spots fit for its habitation, by means of the powers of migration
given to it from the first. If we adopt this view, or the doctrine
of specific centres, there is no difficulty in comprehending how
the Cryptogamous plants of Siberia, Lapland, Greenland, and
Labrador, scaled the heights of Mount Washington, because the

of the White Mountaim. 91

sporules of the fungi, lichens, and mosses, may be wafted through
the air for indefinite distances like smoke ; and in fact heavier
particles are actually known to have been carried for thousands of
miles by the wind. But the cause of the occurrence of Arctic
plants of the Phoenogamous class on the top of the New Hamp-
shire Mountains, specifically identical with those of remote polar
regions, is by no means so obvious. They could not in the pre-
sent condition of the earth affect a passage over the intervening
lowlands, because the extreme heat of summer and cold of win-
ter would be fatal to them. We must suppose, therefore, that
originally they extended their range in the same way as the
plants now inhabiting arctic and antarctic lands disseminate them-
selves. The innumerable islands in the polar seas are tenanted
by the same species of plants, some of which are conveyed as
seeds by animals over the ice when the sea is frozen in winter, or
by birds ; while a still larger number are transported by floating
icebergs, on which soil containing the seeds of plants may be
carried in a single year for hundreds of miles. A great body of
geological evidence has now been brought together to show that
this machinery for scattering plants as well as for carrying erratic
blocks southward, and polishing and grooving the floor of the
ancient ocean, extended in the western hemisphere to lower lati-
tudes than that of the White Mountains. When these last still
constituted islands in a sea chilled by the melting of floating ice,
we may assume that they were covered entirely by a flora like
that now confined to the uppermost or treeless region of the
mountains. As the continent grew by the slow upheaval of the
land, and the islands gained in height, and the climate around
these hills grew milder, the Arctic plants would retreat to higher
and higher zones, and finally occupy an elevated area which
probably had been at first or in the glacial period, always covered
with perpetual snow. Meanwhile the newly formed plains around
the base of the mountain, to which northern species of plants
could not spread, would be occupied by others migrating from the
south, and perhaps by many trees, shrubs, and plants, then first
created, and remaining to this day peculiar to North America."

The time to which the above views of Sir C. Lyell would refer
the migration of the White Mountain flora, is historically very re-
mote. The changes of level which have submerged the American
continent and re-elevated its land, have occupied long periods.
Whether with Lyell we measure these periods by the recession

92 Dr. Dawson on the Flora

of the Falls of Niagara, or by the growth of the alluvial plain of
the Mississippi ; or with Agassiz, by the extension of the Peninsula
of Florida, or endeavour to estimate the time required for the
abrasion and deposition of the great mass of clay that fills the
valley of the St. Lawrence, we cannot suppose that less than two or
three hundred centuries have elapsed since the alpine plants of
the White Mountains were cut off from all connection with their
Arctic relatives. Their reign upon the mountain tops not only
antedates all human dynasties, but reaches far beyond the creation
of man himself and many of his contemporaries.

Positive evidence of the existence of some of these plants dur-
ing a large portion of this lapse of time, has actually been pre-
served in the Post-phocene deposits of Canada. At Green's
Creek on the Ottawa, in nodules in the clay containing marine
shells, and coeval with the Leda clay of Montreal, there are
numerous remains of plants that have been embedded in this
clay at a time when the Ottawa valley was a bay or estuary, and
when the Adirondack Mountains of New York and the moun-
tains of New England were two rocky islands separated from each
other, and from the mainland on the north, by wide arms of the
sea. The plants found in these nodules all appear to be of mo-
dern species. It is of course not easy to recognise the specific
characters in these fragments, but I think I have good evidence
of Potentilla Norvegica^ P. tridentata, and possibly P. Canadensis;
Populus balsamifera, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Trifolium repenSy
Drosera rotundifolia, Potamogeton natans, and P. perfoliatum.*
There are also seeds apparently of ranunculaceous plants ; grasses
and carices, and mosses. Several of these plants are found on
the White Mountains, and they are all northern and arctic species.
I have no doubt that further examination of these deposits will
lead to the discovery of additional examples. This fact, proving
as it does the existence of these species at the period in which
the theory of Lyell and Forbes requires them to have migrated,,
is in itself strong corroborative evidence. We can say that some
of these species were waiting on the shores of the north, ready to
be drifted to the insular spots to the south-west, and that their
seeds were actually being washed out to sea by the streams which
emptied themselves into the then estuary of the Ottawa.

* These determinations were made from specimens in the collection
of the Geological Survey, and from others kindly collected for me by

(^ the White Mountains. 93

Another aspect of the inquiry which has perhaps not been re-
garded with sufficieot attention, is that which relates to the re-
duction of temperature, which might be consequent on the great
•depression of the land which we know to have existed at the close
of the tertiary period, a fact on which I have insisted in former
papers on the Post-pliocene deposits of Canada.* A very clever
writer on the subject of geographical distribution,f has pictured
the case of a subsiding continent with the fauna and flora of its
lowlands becoming gradually concentrated on the spots which
had previously been alpine summits, but now reduced to low and
temperate islands. But he has left out of view the fact, that if
land still existed in mass in the arctic regions, and if the subsid-
ence was that of land in temperate regions, then on the principles
long ago so well stated by Sir C. Lyell, these islands might have
a mean temperature far below that of the former plains, and might
in consequence be suitable only to such an alpine flora as that
which they had previously borne.

Now this is precisely what occurred in the I^ost-pliocene pe-
riod. The arctic land remained in great mass, detaching into
the sea annual crops of icebergs, which have strewed all the north-
ern hemisphere with boulders : the temperate regions were sub-
merged except a few insular spots. These are the very con-
ditions required for a low mean temperature both in the sea and
on the land, and these geographical conditions correspond pre-
cisely with the facts as indicated by the fossil animals and plants
of the period.

Further, it would be easy to show that the alpine plants of
Mount Washington would thrive under such conditions as those
supposed, at the sea level ; a low and equable temperature with a
moist atmosphere being that which they most desire, and their
greatest enemy being the dry parching heat of the plains of the
temperate regions. Those of them, such as Potentilla tridentataj
Linncea borealis^ and Alsine Groenlandica, wliich occur within the
limits ot the United States, are found under shaded woods, in
damp ravines, or on the moist sea coast; and as we follow the
coasts northward, we find these plants on thesc^ and on neighbor-
ing islands, in lower latitudes than those in which they occur in-
land. When the summer mists roll around the summit of Mount
Washington, it is in every respect the precise counterpart of an

* Canadian Naturalist, Vol. IV. f Wollaston.

94. Dr, Dawsoii on the Flora

islet anywhere on the coast of America from Cape Breton to the
arctic seas, and when winter wraps everything in a mantle of
snow, all these lands are in like manner under the same conditions.
So in the Post-pliocene period, though the islets of the White
Mountains may have experienced a less degree of winter cold,
they must have had very nearly the same summer temperature as
now; and as this is the season of growth for our alpine and arc-
tic plants, it is its character that determines the suitableness of the
locality to them.

Those stupendous vicissitudes of land and water which have
changed the aspect of continents, and swept into destruction races
of gigantic quadrupeds, have dealt gently with these alpine plants,
which long ages ago looked out upon a waste of ice-laden waters
that had engulfed the Pliocene land with all its inhabitants, as
securely as they now look down upon the pleasant valleys of New
England. It is curious too that the humbler tenants of the sea
have shared a similar exemption. In the clay banks of the Saco,
on the shores of Lake Champlain, and mixed with the remains
of these very plants in the valley of the Ottawa, are shells that
now live in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the coast of Maine,
intermixed with other species that are now found only in a few
bays of the Arctic seas. Just as in the Post-pliocene clays of the
Ottawa, the remains of arctic plants are found in the same nodule
with those of Leda truncata, so now similar associations may be
taking place on the coasts at the mouth of the Great Fish River.
Truly, in nature as in grace, God hath chosen the weak things of
the world to confound those that are mighty, and has left in the
earth's geological history, monuments of his respect and regard
for the humblest of his works.

We look in vain among the alpine plants so long isolated in
these mountains, for any evidence of decided change in specific
characters. The alpine plants for ages separated from their arc-
tic brethren, are true to their kinds, and shew little tendency to
vary, and none to adapt themselves to new forms in the sunny
plains below. This is especially noteworthy in Mount Washing-
ton and the neighboring peaks, because the soil of these is the
same with that of the valleys below. Several of the plants pecu-
liar to these hills, as the black crow-berry (Fmpetrum nigrum),
for instance, even when other conditions are favourable, shun rich
calcareous soils, and aft'ect these of granitic origin. In many cases
the difference in soil is a sufficient reason for the non-occurrence

of the White Mountains, 95

of such plants except on certain hills. At Murray Bay, and on
the shores of Lake Superior, the plant above named occurs only
on the Laurentian gneiss. In Nova Scotia, its relative, Corema
Conradi, is confined to the granite barrens of the south coast.
Many such plants skirt the whole Laurentian range from Labra-
dor to Lake Superior, but refuse to extend themselves over the
calcareous plains of Canada. But in the White Hills the soil of
the river alluvium is the same micaceous sand that fills the cre-
vices of the rocks in the mountains, and hence there is no ob-
struction, in so far as soil is concerned, to the diff'usion of plants
upward and downward in the hills. In like manner there is every
possible condition as to moisture and dryness, sunshine and shade,
in both localities. These circumstances are of all others the most
favourable to such variation as these plants are capable of under-
going. The case is the same with that which Hugh Miller so
strongly puts in relation to the species of algae that occur at dif-
ferent distances below high water mark on the coast of Scotland,
each species there attaining a certain limit, and then instead of
changing to suit the new conditions, giving place to another. So
it is on Mount Washington ; and this whether we regard the
lowland plants that climb to a certain height and there stop ; the
plants that are common to the base and summit, or the plants
that are confined to the latter.

I have already referred to the evident struggle of the spruces
and firs, and the plants associated with them, to ascend the moun-
tain ; and the same remark applies to all the plants that one after
another cease to appear at various heights from the lower valleys.
One by one they become stunted and depauperated, and then
cease, without any semblance of an attempt to vary into new and
hardier forms. And this must have been proceeding, be it ob-
served, from all those thousands or myriads of years that have
elapsed since the elevation of the mountains out of the glacial seas.
It is to be observed also that the new plants that occur in ascend-
ing, often belong to different genera and families from those left
behind, not to closely allied species ; and in the few cases in which
this last kind of change occurs, there is no graduation into interme-
diate forms. For instance Solidago thyrsoidea and >S^. vi>ya-aurea
occur around the base of the mountain, and for some distance up
its sides. At the height of four to five thousand feet, the latter only
remains, and this in a dwarfish condition. This corresponds to
its distribution elsewhere, for according to Richardson it occurs in

96 Dr, Dawson on tlie Flora

lat. 55° to 65*^ in Arctic America, and according to Hooker it is
found in the Rocky Mountains, while it also occurs in the hills of
•Scotland, and very abundantly in some parts of Norway. In the
White Mountains aS'. thyrsoidea prevails toward the base, S. virga-
aurea toward the summit ; and at the top of Tucker man's ravine
I found the former of these golden-rods in blossom, within a few
hundred feet of the latter, each preserving its distinctive peculi-
arities. Much has lately been said of the appearance of specific
diversity that results from the breaking up of the continuity of
the geographical areas of plants by geological changes ; but here
we probably have the converse of this. The mountain species is
no doubt a part of the older arctic flora, the other belongs to the
more modern flora of the plains, and they have met on the sides
of the White Hills.

Some hardy species climb from the plains to heights of 5000
feet or more, with scarcely even the usual change of being de-
pauperated, and then suddenly disappear. This is very note-
worthy in the case of two woodland plants, the dwarf cornel or
pigeon-berry {Cornus Canadensis), and the twin-flower (^Linnosa
borealis). The former of these is a plant most widely distributed
over northern America, and probably belongs to that newer flora
which overspread the continent after its re-elevation. In August
this plant in the woods around the base of Mount Washington is
loaded with its red berries. At an elevation of four to five thousand
feet it may be found in bloom ; above this a few plants appear
destitute of flowers, dwarfish in aspect, and nipped by cold, and
then the species disappears. No doubt the birds that feed on its
little drupes have carried it up the mountain, and have sown it a
little farther up than the limit of its probable reproductiveness.
The beautiful little Linncea is a still more widely distributed
plant; for it occurs on the hills of northern Europe, and is found
across the whole breadth of the American continent from Nova
Scotia to the Columbia River. It is almost beyond question a
member of the old arctic flora which colonised the islands of the
Post-pliocene sea, and has descended from them on all sides as
the land became elevated. This plant also climbs Mount Wash-
ington to a height of 5000 feet, and presents precisely the same
characters on the top as at the bottom, only losing a little in the
length of its stem. Specimens bearing blossoms and quite in the
same stage of growth, may be collected at the same time on the
highest shoulders of Mount Washington, and on the flats at Gor-

of the WJiite Mountains. 97

ham. The Linncea in this is true to its designation. For as if
it belonged to it to support the reputation of the great systematist
after whom it is named, it preserves its specific characters with
scarcely a tittle of change throughout all its great range. One
cannot see this hardy little survivor of the glacial period, so un-
changing yet so gentle, so modest yet so adventurous, so wide in
its migrations yet so choice in the selection of the mossy nooks
which it adorns with its pendant bells, and renders fragrant with
its delicious perfume, without praying that we might in these days
of petty distinctions and narrow views, be favoured with more
such minds as that of the great Swede, to combine the little de-
tails of the knowledge of natural history into grand views of the
unity of nature.

Another plant which, being less dependent on shade and shel-
ter than the Linncea^ mounts still higher, is the cowberry or fox-
berry ( Vaccinium vitis-Idma). This also is both European and
American, and is probably a survivor of the Post-pliocene period.
It still occurs in at least one locality in the low country of Massa-
chusetts, and on the coast of Maine. It is found along the gran-
itic coast of Nova Scotia, and extends thence northward to the
arctic circle, being found at Great Bear Lake and at Unalaska.
This too is a most unchanging species, and the same statement
may be made respecting Ruhus Chamcemorus, the cloud-berry,
Empetrum nigrum^ the black crowberry. Ledum lati/olium, the
Labrador tree, Potentilla tridentata^ the three toothed cinque-foil,
which grows on ihe coast of Nova Scotia, and is found in the
nodules of the Ottawa clay, the same in every detail as on Mount
Washington, Vaccinium uUginosum, the bog bill berry, and V.
coespitosum, the dwarf billberry. Several of these too it will be
observed, are berry-bearing plants, whose seeds must be deposited
in all kinds of localities by birds. Yet they never occur in the
warm plains, nor do they show much tendency to vary in the dis-
tant and somewhat dissimilar places in which they occur. In the
case of most of these species, the most careful, comparison of spe-
cimens from Mount Washinijton with those from Labrador, shows
no tittle of difference. When we consider the vast length of time
during which such species have existed, and the multiplied vicis-
situdes through which they have passed, one is tempted to believe
that it is the tendency of the " struggle for existence" to confirm
and render permanent the characters of species rather than to
modify them.
Can. Nat. T Vol. YII.

98 Dr* Dawson on the Flora

Of the more specially arctic plants which have held their
ground unchanged on Mount Washington, the following are some
of the principal. Diapensia Lapponica in beautiful deep green
tufts ascends quite to the summit. It occurs also in the Adir-
ondack Mountains, and on Mount Katahdin in Maine. It is
found in Labrador, and according to Hooker, extends north to
Whale Island in the Arctic seas ; but it is not found west of the
Great Fish River. It occurs also on the mountains of Lapland,
and is described as the hardiest plant of that bleak region.
Arenaria {Alsine) Groenlandica, the Greenland sandwort, adorns
with its clusters of white flowers every sandy crevice in the rocks
of the very summit of Mount Washington, and is trodden under
foot like grass by the hundreds of careless sight-seers that haunt
the peak in summer ; though I should add that not a few of
them carry off little tufts as a memento of the mountains, along
with the fragments of mica which appear to form the ordinary
keepsakes of unscientific visitors. It is a most frail and delicate
plant, seemingly altogether unsuited to the dangerous pre-emi-
nence which it seeks, yet it loves the bare unsheltered mountain
peaks, and when it occurs in the more sheltered ravines, has
only its stems a little longer and more slender. It occurs on the
Adirondack Mountains and on Katahdin, where — if I may judge
from specimens kindly sent to me by Mr. Goodale — it attains to
smaller dimensions than on Mount Washington, on the Katskills,
and at one place on the sea coast of Maine. I have not seen it in
Nova Scotia, but it ranges north to Greenland.

Another of the truly arctic plants is the alpine azalea (Loi-
seleuria procumhens), a densely tufted mountain shrub, with hard
glossy leaves, that look as if constructed to brave extremest hard-
ships. It is found on the mountains of Norway, at the height of
3550 feet on the Scottish Hills according to Watson, and ac-
cording to Fuchs at the height of 7000 feet in the milder climate
of the Venetian Alps. In America it is found in Newfoundland,
in Labrador, and in the barren grounds from lat. 65^ to the ex-
treme arctic islands. Gray does not mention its occurrence else-
where in the United States than the summits of the White Moun-
tains. A member of the same family of the heaths, the yew-
leaved phyllodoce {P. taxifoUa)^ presents a still more singular dis-
tribution. It is found on all the higher mountains of New
England and New York, and occurs also on the mountains of
Scotland and Scandinavia, but its only known station in northern

^ of the White Mouviains, 9D

America is, according to Hooker, in Labrador. As many as nine
or ten of the alpine plants of the White Mountains belong to the
order Ericaceoe. Another example from this order is Rhododen-
dron Lapponicum, a northern European species, as its name in-
dicates, and scattered over all the high mountains of New Engr-
land and New York, occurring also in Labrador, on the arctic
sea coasts, and the northern part of the Rocky Mountains.

It would be tedious to refer in detail to more of these plants,
but I must notice two herbaceous species belonging to diflferent
families, but resembling each other in size and ha\)it — the alpine
epilobiura [E. alpinum or alsine/oUum), and the alpine speed-
well ( Veronica alpina). Both are in the United States confined
to the highest mountain tops. Both occur as alpine northern
plants in Europe, being found on the Alps, on the Scottish High-
lands, and in Scandinavia. Both are found in Labrador, and on
the Rocky Mountains, and the Veronica extends as far as Green-
land. The alpine epilobium is one of the few White Mountain
plants that have attained the bad eminence of being regarded as
doubtful species. Gray notes as the typical form, that with ob-
tuse and nearly entire leaves, and as a variety, that with acute
and slightly toothed leaves, which some other botanists seem to
regard as distinct specifically. Thus we find that this little plant
has been induced to assume a suspicious degree of variability ;
yet it is strange that both species or varieties are found growing
together, as if the little peculiarities in the form of the leaves were
matters of indifference, and not induced by any dire necessities
in the struggle for life. Facts of this kind are curious, and not
easily explained under the supposition either of specific unity or
diversity. For why should this plant vary without necessity, and
why should two species so much alike be created for the same
locality. Perhaps these two species or varieties, wandering from
far distant points of origin, have met here fortuitously, while the
lines of migration have been cut off by geological changes, and
yet the points of difference are too constant to be removed even
after the reason for them has disappeared. If this could be
proved, it would afford a strong reason for believing the existence
of a real specific diversity in these plants.

I have said nothing of the grasses and sedges of these moun-
tains ; but one of them deserves a special notice. It is the alpine
herd's grass (^Phleum alpinum), a humble relation of our common
herd's grass. This plant not only occurs on the White Moun-

100 Dr, Dawson on the Flora

tains, in arctic America, and on the hills of Scotland and Scan-
dinavia, but has been fotind on the Mexican Cordillera, and at
the Straits of Magellan. The seeds of this grass may perhaps be
specially suited for transportation by water as well as by land.
It is observed in Nova Scotia that when the wide flats of mud
deposited by the tides of the Bay of Fundy, are dyked in from the
sea, they soon become covered with grasses and carices, the seeds
of which are supposed to be washed down by streams and mingled
with the marine silt ; and fragments of grasses abound in the post-
tertiary clays of the Ottawa.

It seems almost ridiculous thus to connect the persistence of the
form of a little plant with the subsidence and elevation of whole
continents, and the lapse of enormous periods of time. Yet the
power which preserves unchanged from generation to generation
the humblest animal or plant, is the same with that which causes
the permanence of the great laws of physical nature, and the
continued revolutions of the earth and all its companion spheres.
A little leaf entombed ages on ages ago in the Post-pliocene
clays of Canada, preserves in all its minutest features the precise
type of that of the same species as it now lives, after all the
■prodigious geological changes that have intervened. An arctic
and alpine plant that has survived all these changes, maintains in
its now isolated and far removed stations, all its specific characters
unchanged. The flora of a mountain top is precisely what it
must have been when it was an island in the glacial seas. These
facts relate not to hard crystalline rocks that remain unaltered
from age to age, but to little delicate organisms that have many
thousands of times died and been renewed in the lapse of time.
They show us that what we call a species represents a decision of
the unchanging creative will, and that the group of qualities
which constitutes our idea of the species, goes on from generation
to generation animating new organisms constructed out of different
particles of matter. The individual dies but the species lives, and
will live until the Power that has decreed its creation shall have
decreed its extinction ; or until in the slow process of physical
change depending on another section of His laws, it shall have
been excluded from the possibility of existence anywhere on the
surface of the earth.

While the huge ribs of mother earth that project into moun-
tain summits, and the grand and majestic movement of the crea-
tive processes by which they have been formed, speak to us of

of the White Mountains. 101

the majesty of Him to whom the sea belongs, and whose hand
formed the dry land, the continuance of these little plants preaches
the same lessons of humble faith in the divine promises and laws,
which our Lord drew from the lihes of the field.

It is suggestive in connection with the antiquity and migra-
tions of these plants, to consider the differences in this respect of
some closely allied species of the same genera. Of the blueberries
that grow on the White Mountains, one species, Vacdnium ulig-
inosurifij is found at Behring's Straits and in northern Europe.
F. ccespitosum has a wide northern range in America, but is not
European. V. Pennsylvanicam and V. Canadense from their
geographical distribution do not seem to belong to the arctic
flora at all, but to be of more southern origin. The two bear-
berries {Arctostaioliylos uva-ursi and alpina), occur together on
the White Hills, and on the Scottish and Scandinavian moun-
tains, but the former is a plant of much wider and more southern
distribution in America than the latter. Two of the dwarf wil-
lows of the White Mountains i^Salix repens and S. herhacea), are
European as well as American, but aS^. uva-ursi seems to be con-
fined to America. Ruhus trijiorus, the dwarf raspberry, and E.
Chamoemorus, the cloud-berry, climb about equally high on Mount
Washington, but the former is exclusively American and ranges
pretty far southward, while the latter extends no farther south
than the northern coast of Maine, and is distributed all around
the arctic regions of the Old and New Worlds. It is to be ob-
served, however, that the former can thrive on rich and calca-
reous soils, while the latter loves those that are barren and grani-
tic ; but it is nevetheless probable that R. trifloms belongs to a
later and more local flora. Similar reasons would induce the be-
lief that the American dwarf cornel or pigeon-berry, (^Cornus
Canadensis)^ whose distribution is solely American and not pro-
perly arctic, is of later origin than the C. Suecica, which occurs
in northern America locally, and is extensively distributed in
northern Europe.

I can but glance at such points as these ; but they raise great
questions which are to be worked out, not merely by the patient
collection of facts, but by a style of scientific thought very much
above those which on the one hand escape such problems by the
supposition of multiplied centres of creation, or on the other,
render their solution worthless by confounding races due to ex-
ternal disturbing causes with species originally distinct. Diffi-

102 Archhold on the failure of the Apple Tree

culties of various kinds are easily evaded by either of these ex-
treme vifews; but with the fact before him of specific diversity and
its manifestly long continuance on the one hand, and the remark-
able migrations of some species on the other, the true naturalist
must be content to work out the problems presented to him with
the data afforded by the actual observation of nature, following
carefully the threads of guidance thus indicated, not rudely
breaking them by too hasty generalisations.

ARTICLE VIT. — On the failure of the Apple Tree in the neigh-
bourhood of Montreal. — A communication to the Committee
of the Natural History Society of Montreal. By Joun
Archbold.
The failure of the apple trees in the neighbourhood of Montreal,
and I believe in all the Island, is a sad calamity as regards do-
mestic luxury, as well as in a commercial point of view. I have
seen Montreal, in its palmy days of apple-growing, export its
thousands of barrels of Pomraes Crises, Bourassas, and Fameuses.
These were the principal sorts sent to Europe, the refuse of which,
as well as the great quantities of wild apples, that is apples
from seedlings, always found a ready market at Quebec and the
ports below it, at remunerative prices. With these facts clearly
before us, it is not to be wondered at that strict enquiry should
be made by all who feel the least interest in the culture of the
apple, as to the cause of its decay. I have been a resident in
Montreal since 1832, and for the last twenty -five years have
lived on the south-eastern slope of the Mountain, on the Cote
St. Antoine road, and have acted in the capacity of gardener at
Mount Pleasant, the then residence of the late Joseph Savage,
Esq.; also at Rosemount, the residence of the Hon. John Young,
and subsequently at Forden, the residence of Capt. R. T. Raynes,
and of the late Charles Bowman, Esq. ; one of the most zealous
friends and supporters of Horticulture, in his day, that Montreal
could boast of. All these places were noted for the production
of fine varieties of the apple, the pear, and the plum. The latter
place, Forden, in particular, used to yield about fifteen years ago,
from 1000 to 1500 lbs. of fruit, but the last three years have made
sad havoc with the trees, and unless some reaction in the growth
takes place, there will not be one of the old trees living three
years hence. I noticed the decline of some sorts of the apple

in the neighbourhood of Montreal. 103

twenty years ago. I had a talk with the late Henry Corse, Esq.,
about that time, on the failure of the Early Harvest apple, and he
was under the impression that it was then extinct about Montreal,
but I convinced him that it was not, for in each of the above
mentioned places, I had seen trees of the Early Harvest which
gave from three to four barrels of good apples, but these few
trees are, I have every reason to believe, now gone. There were
also the Ribston Pippin, (much on the decline these last ten
years,) the Keswick Codlin, Hawthornden, Grant's Major, John
Richardson ; but these and some others, I always looked upon as
being tender, from the softness of their wood, which is not nearly
8o hard as that of the Bourassa, Pomme Grise, and Faraeuse, and
therefore do not wonder at their destruction. These latter sorts
have, however, for the last ten years, been declining in the vigour
of their growth, and the size of their fruit. I was for some time
under the impression from what I could learn from some garden-
ers, and other cultivators of fruit, that the above named three
sorts of apples, would not bear fruit in any other locality than in
the Island of Montreal, but that impression was completely re-
moved, by visiting the Provincial Exhibition held at Brantford,
C. W., some years ago. I saw there as fine specimens of the
Bourassa, as Montreal could produce in its best days. At Ham-
ilton I also visited some of the gardens, and there to my surprise,
I found the Pomme Grise, Fameuse, and Ribston Pippin, growing
side by side, and loaded with fine fruit, with not the slightest
appearance of decay. These remarks, however, are by the way ;
the point of discussion, at present, is the cause of the decay
in the apple trees in the vicinity of Montreal. There will no
doubt be a great many opinions put forth on the subject, and
some light will I hope be thus thrown on both the cause and the
cure. Were the decay confined to one place, one kind of soil, or
one mode of pruning or culture, there would be less difficulty in
discovering both the cause and cure ; but when we find the decay, in
one fell swoop, taking off the whole of the young orchards that
have been planted within these fifteen or twenty years past, and
that even the old savage^ as the Canadians call it, that has stood
the severity of the winters for the last fifty years, is suffering the
same fate, the difficulty of giving an opinion is ail the greater.
When also it is observed that apple trees both in the most shel-
tered nooks and on the bleakest exposures, on the best alluvial
soil, and on the gravelly and limestone rock, all alike share the

104 ArchhoJd on the failure of the Apple Tree

same fate, the necessity of careful consideration is much increased.
I noticed in several of the apple trees, after the severity of the
winter three years ago, that many of the large limbs became
disordered by their cellular tissues not admitting that uniform
and free flow of sap to the outer extremities of the branches, which
was necessary for healthy growth. The consequence was, that
there remained in the trunk an overflow of sap, and some very
severe freezing nights coming at the time, the sap froze, and
caused the outer bark to burst ; the trunk soon after presenting
a black and decaying appearance. This is one of the causes to
which I attribute the decay.

I have also observed in gardens and orchards, at a season when
the trees are in full vigour of flower and foliage, that they have
been completely denuded of their leaves by the ravages of the
caterpillar. Thus being left bare to the influence of a June sun,
their health and vigour were seriously impaired. I have observed
that trees which suff"ered so, for two years in succession, hardly
ever recovered from the eftects of it ; this is one other cause to
which I attribute the decay of the apple. To avoid injury to the
trees, care should be taken as to the time ot pruning. When this
is done in the beginning of March, or, as is sometimes the case,
before that time, and wounds are left bare, without any cover or
protection, the influence of a hot sun by day, and hard frost
by night, is such, that these wounds emit a portion of the sap,
and cause the parts atlected to become black, a sure forerunner
of decay. In my humble opinion, that work should be deferred
till later in the season. My reason for forming this opinion is,
that I have observed in my practice of budding, which com-
mences about the middle of July for stone fruits, and continues
all through August for the pear and the apple ; that having to cut
and prune the stocks to a considerable extent, I always found the
wounds, at that season, to heal up very quickly, and leave no trace
of black, such as might be seen in early spring pruning. Another
cause of decay, seems to me to be some kind of atmospheric
agency, for I have frequently noticed a portion of the branches of
apple trees becoming black in parts where there were no wounds.
Sometimes at the junction of the lateral branches with the
main branch, and sometimes near the outer extremity of the
branch. Some persons attribute the appearance to lightning, but
that appears to me rather doubtful, for although thunder and
lightning are common in the summer months, in Canada, I never

in the neighbourhood of Montreal, 105

noticed any parts of apple trees to be blackened to the extent tbey
now are, until these last four years past. There might, indeed,
occasionally have been symptoms of decay in some trees, and
in certain localities, but the cause in such cases was easily ac-
counted for. This commonly occurred when trees were planted
in hard blue sub-soil, saturated with water at all seasons of the
year, without the least attention being paid to drainage. On
consulting any of the British authors who have written on the
culture of the apple, they will all be found to agree that the soil
should undergo a thorough preparation, previous to planting, and
that it should be trenched at least to the depth of two feet. If
such preparation is an essential in such a mild climate as Great
Britain, it is much more so in Canada, where we have frequently
such a long continuance of drought in the summer, and severe
frost in the winter. I have often been struck with the short
life of the apple trees about Montreal. There was an impression
made on my mind, in early life, that the apple was a long lived
tree. I have known apple trees in the west of Ireland, in the
neighborhood of the town of Sligo, to attain the age of 150 years,
and then to be bearing good crops of apples. I also find that
A. J. Downing, one of the most reliable and best American au-
thors, in writing on the age of the apple, says he saw in*
Rhode Island, two trees 130 years old. He however reckons our
fine garden sorts to live only from 50 to 80 years. Now, I ques-
tion if we could find about Montreal, any of our fine garden sorts
half that age, that is 40 years old. He also strongly recommends
trenching the soil, and says it adds greatly to the long life of the
trees. I must confess that I have not seen that proper attention
paid to fruit trees in the neighborhood of Montreal which they re-
quire. I have seen, in many cases, trees planted on the green
sward, without any other preparation than simply making a hole
and putting in the tree ; leaving it afterwards to take care of it-
self. In such cases the result may be easily conjectured. In taking
up numbers of both pear and apple trees, the heads of which were
dead, I have found that their roots were generally perfectly sound,
not showing the least symptom of decay below the surface. The
cause of decay does not therefore lie with the root.

The question often occurs to me, shall we ever see Montreal
producing the fine fruits that it did twenty-five years ago ? The
markets were then filled to overflowing with the finest varieties
of the plum and the pear, and a pretty good quantity of the peach

106 Dr. Dawson on an Erect Sigillaria

and apricot, of open wall culture. Now there is no such thing to
be found as a good Bon-chretien pear, or an Autumn Bergamot, or
a Burmese Spruce, or yet a luscious Bolman's Washington plum,
or a Greengage, or even a coarse Magnum Bonum ; and but sel-
dom will you find a good basket of the common wild red plum
of the country. I have also noticed a de(4ine in the vigour and
growth of several other plants, these last few years past, in com-
parison with what might have been seen twenty years ago. Then
I saw the gardens about Montreal produce enormous crops of
melons, with very little care or attention ; now it is uncertain if you
get a good crop with all the care you can give them. I have also
Seen good crops of grapes raised in the gardens, and have myself
raised at Mount Pleasant, good crops of the Sweet Water and
Black Cluster in good condition, in the open ground. Then there
was no such thing as the mildew, or the nip, as it is now ; nor
was that troublesome pest, the curculio, known about Montreal.
Yet with all these facts before us, it will not do to be idle lookers
on ; better to be up and doing. I would suggest that any man
possessed of land, whether little or much, should plant trees ac-
cording to his means, and let what is planted, be planted in the
best possible way, and under the best conditions of soil and cul-
ture. He may then hope for good results in time to come.

These few remarks, hastily penned, are respectfully submitted
to the Montreal Natural History Society.

Forden, 6th January, 1862.

ARTICLE VHL — On an Erect Sigillaria and a CarpoUte from
Nova Scotia, By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S.
(jPVotA the Journal o/ the Geological Society of London.')

'I'he erect trees so frequent in the Joggins coast-section,
though often distinctly ribbed, rarely show the minute markings
of the leaf-scars in a sufficiently perfect state to enable them to
be compared with those of the flattened trunks seen in the shales
and ironstones. This, no doubt, arises in part from the circum-
stance that the bases of the trunks of Sigillarice did not always
retain their characteristic markings, and in part from the unfavour-
able influence of an erect position in coarse and often laminated
sediment. The specimen, to which this note relates, and which
I obtained in 1859 from a sandstone in Group XIV. of my sec-
tion of the South Joggins*, affords an exception to the generally

♦ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x. r. 6.

and a CarpolUefrom Nova Scotia,

107

imperfect condition of these trunks sujQSciently remarkable to
merit a short notice.

The specimen measures 3 feet in height, and is 10:J- inches in
diameter at the base, 9 inches in the middle, and 7^ inches at the
top, where it was abruptly broken oflf. (Fig. 1.) At the base it shows
the usual tendency to divide into four main roots ; but these hare
been nipped off or flattened by pressure, not having been filled
with sediment. The trunk retains its form on one side, but on the
other the bark has been rent from top to bottom, and in part
folded inward. This seems to have been caused by the pressure

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

of the surrounding sediment, and has probably somewhat dimin-
ished the diameter of the stem. The interior of the trunk is
filled with grey sandstone, similar to that of the enclosing bed.
The outer bark, less than a line in thickness, is in the state of
bituminous coal ; and an internal cast with a thin coaly envelope
represents the pith. This internal cast extends through the great-
er part of the length, but has fallen to one side. It is only half
an inch in diameter. The coaly matter remaining on its surface
shows, when prepared with nitric acid, cellular structure ; and
traces of transverse Sternbergian markings remain in parts of it,
so that it must not be regarded as the woody aziSy which has di^
appeared, but merely as the pith-cylinder.

The leaf-scars and other surface markings are preserved throogh-
outthe specimen, but only in a few places in suflScient perfection
to show the more minute features of the former. At the upper

108 Dr, Dawson on an Erect Sigillaria

part the ribs are very prominent, and there are twenty-six in the
whole circumference, the breadth of each rib being about nine-
tenths of an inch. On the outer or cortical surface each rib is
flattened, or even concave, along the middle, and strongly round-
ed at the sides, descending into deep intercostal furrows ; the flat
mesial portion being smooth, the lateral portions marked with
sharp vertical ridges, and in places with very delicate longitudinal
and transverse striae. The leaf-scars extend across the smooth
middle portion of the rib, and are distant from each other one
inch vertically. In form they resemble those of Sigillaria trans-
versalis, S. Defrancii," and S. Brochantii, Brongt., being trans-
versely lanceolate, emarginate above, with acute lateral edges.
Those best diplayed show two vascular punctures, with a third
mark or prominence between and rather below them. On the
so-called ligneous surface, or that of the inner bark, the ribs are
slightly furrowed or striated lengthwise ; and the leaf-scars are re-
presented by two deep punctures of the vascular scars. (Fig. 2.)

In tracing the ribs downward, some of them wedge out and dis-
appear : so that at the middle of the length of the trunk there
may be about 22 ; each with a breadth increased to one inch and
four-tenths, and flatter than those at the top, with the intercostal
furrow shallower. The leaf-scars are now widened transversely,
aud have lost their minute markings on the cortical surface ;
while on the ligneous surface the vascular punctures are twice as
far apart as at the top. About the middle the vertical distance of
the scars diminishes somewhat suddenly to seven-tenths of an
inch.

In the lower third of the stem the ribs are quite obliterated,
and the whole surface is wrinkled with coarse waving striae or
small furrows, due apparently to the expansion of the outer bark.
The leaf-scars still remain in regular vertical rows ; but these are
reduced to about twelve, and apparently at the base to as few as
nine. The vertical distance of the scars is still about 0*7 inch ;
but the transverse distance between the centres of the rows is in-
creased to 2-8 inches or more. In form the leaf-scars are now
transverse furrows, an inch or more in length, and the
vascular punctures are half an inch or more apart in each
scar. A single row of these wider scars is shown in (Fig. 3.)

Of the roots I could obtain no specimens ; but the markings on
the bark at the base of the trunk are precisely similar to those on
many Stigmarian roots found attached to less perfectly preserved

and a Carpolite from Nova Scotia,

109

stems, and a few stigmaroid areoles are perceptible on the lower sur-
face of the stump.

The woody axis has entirely disappeard, nor does any mineral
charcoal appear in the base of the cast. It has either been en-

Fig. 3.

tirely removed by decay, or has been washed out by the waves before
the hollow bark was filled up.

As this trunk appears to belong to a species not previously de-
scribed, and we have a better knowledge of its parts and mode
of growth than of those of most of the named species, I may pro-
pose for it a specific appellation, and would call it Sigillaria
Browniiy in commemoration of the many interesting discoveries
in relation to these plants made by my friend Richard Brown,
Esq., of Sydney, Cape Breton.

The following are the most important points relating to
Sigillanoe in general, illustrated by the specimen above-de-
scribed :— 1. The evidence of the exogenous growth of Sigillaria.
The growth of the trunk took place, as I have elsewhere main-
tained,* by the introduction of new woody wedges in the axis and'
by additions to the surface of the axis and to the inner bark, after
the manner of exogenous stems. When the present trunk had nine
rows of scars it was only three inches in diameter, perhaps
much less, and as it grew in height the base expanded in such a man-
ner as to increase the distances between the scars and the distances
between the vascular punctures in the scars, while new rows of
leaves were added above until the number amounted to about 2G.
The same appearances in a species quite distinct from the present

• Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 32.

110 Dr. Dawson on an Erect Sigillaria

are illustrated in my paper on the South Joggins section. Speci-
mens which I have observed, however, as well as facts stated by
Mr. Brown and by Brongniart, induce me to believe that in some
species this mode of growth was so far modified that new ribs
were introduced to the very base of the trunk. The expansion of
the trunk was accompanied by the flattening out of the ribs, and
also by the giving way of the thin outer bark, the inner or middle
bark evidently remaining in a growing state lo the base of the
stem. 2. The decadence of the leaves from the lower part of the
trunk in the living state, is proved by the condition of the scars.
We may also note the shorter vertical distance of the scars
on the lower part of the trunk, showing that, when young,
the leaves were much more crowded than subsequently : and
the absence of bands of deformed and crowded scars sometimes
seen on Sigillarice^j probably connected with periods of fructifi-
cation, and possibly occurring on the upper part of the trunk only.
3. The difficulty of comparing the characters of erect with those
of prostrate Sigillarioe; the former usually showing only the base of
the stem, the latter often only the upper part, and these differing
so materially that they may be mistaken for distinct species. 4. The
mode of growth illustrated by the specimen may apply only to a
portion of the plants usually included in the genus. The spe-
cies of Sigillaria found at the Joggins may amount to about
twenty ; and with reference merely to the habit of growth, with-
out regard to the resemblances or differences in the leaf-scars,
these may be arranged in three groups. The first will include
the present species with S. reniformis^ S. alternans, S. organumj
and another [S. ovalis, mihi) with oval scars like those of S' ca-
tenulata but an inch apart vertically. These have broad and well-
marked ribs, attain to a large size, and often occur erect. Other
species with narrow and less distinct ribs and more or less crowd-
ed scars, as S. elegans, JS, Knorrii, S. scutellata, S. Saullii, (fee,
do not appear to have attained to so great diameter, and are
more rarely seen erect. In some of these species the markings
and leaf-scars seem to be more perfectly preserved to the very base
of the trunk than in the species before mentioned. A third group
consists of species like S. De/ranciij S. Menardiij &c., which are
destitute of ribs and have the scars arranged spirally. Some of
these were of considerable diameter, others quite small ; but they
are rare, and I have not recognized them in the erect position,

* Ibid. vol. xv. p. 640.

and a Caryolke from Nova Scotia, 111

5. In connection with the absence of the usual remains of wood
as mineral charcoal from this trunk, it may be stated that the
bast-like tissue of the inner bark of SigUlarice is abundant in
some of the coal of the Joggins ; whilst the discigerous tissue*
is prevalent in the great Pictou coal-seam. In the former case
the decomposition of the vegetable matter was probably sub-
aerial, or like that of a forest-soil ; whilst the conditions of the
latter were those of peaty bogs.

Carpolite from the Coal-Formation of Cape Breton.

All the best authorities on coal-plants are disposed to refer
the seeds or fruits known by the generic names Trigonocarpum
and Rhabdocarpus to phaenogams, and probably to gymnosperms.
In this case they may have belonged to Coniferce or Sigillarioe, or
to both. That they belonged in great part to the latter is, I think,
rendered probable by their occurrence very abundantly in the mid-
dle part of the coal-measures where SigUlarice abound, by their
various forms corresponding rather to the many species of /S^i^iZfoWoE
than to thefew of Conifers, and by their abundant occurrence in the
interior of hollow stumps of Sigillarios and in the surrounding
beds. Still these fruits or seeds may have belonged to very dif
ferent plants ; and as an example of the type of structure most
frequently associated with SigUlarice^ I have prepared a short
notice of a species of which very well-preserved specimens exist
in my collection, and to which I have assigned the name of

Trigonocarpum Hookeri.

Numerous specimens of this species occur in a thin calcareous
layer in the coal-measures near Port Hood, Cape Breton. They
are not compressed, and are fossilized by calc-spar and iron-
pyrites. Their form is ovate, — the length being 0-3 inch, and
the breadth 0*2 inch. The external surface is rough and destitute
of distinct markings. Internally they present the following struc-
tures : — 1. An outer coat (^to), which is thick, carbonaceous,
and apparently of a dense cellular structure. This corresponds
to the outer supposed " fleshy coat" of Lindley and Ilooker ; but
in this species I think it must have been firm and hard, like the
outer coat of the seeds of pines, which it much resembles in ap-
pearance and structure. 2. An inner coat (tegmen or emhryo-sac)

* Ibid. vol. xii. p. 631.

112

Dr, Dawson on an Erect Sigillaria

which is thin and marked on its outer surface with interrupted
ridges, almost precisely in the manner of the corresponding coat
in the seed of Pinus pinea. This coat is often pyritised, and in

Figs. 1 to 5. — Trigonocarpum Hookeri, Dawson ; from the Coal"
measures of Cape Breton.

Fig. 3. Fig. 5.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Perfect specimen, natural size.

Fig. 2. Specimen deprived of its outer coating.

Fig. 3. Broken specimen magnified.

Fig. 4. Section magnified : a, the testa ; 6, the tegmen ; c, the nucleus,

and dj the embryo.
Fig. 5. Portion of the surface of the inner coat more highly magnified.

some specimens it presents toward the smaller end indications of
three ridges. It corresponds, no doubt, to the outer coat of the
ordinary Trigonocarpa. 3. A nucleus occupying the whole in-

and a Carpolite from Nova Scotia. 113

tenor of the last-mentioned coat, and exhibiting at the smaller end
certain wrinkles and a projecting tubercle, marking the position
of the embryo and micropyle. When the seed is sliced longitu-
dinally, the nucleus is seen to present an outer thick layer of calc-
spar, stained by vegetable matter, and an inner mass which is
colourless. In the smaller end, toward the micropyle, the remains
of the embryo and its suspensor are seen replaced by iron-pyrites,
in the manner represented in fig. 3. In some specimens the
outer coat appears as if divided into two layers, and the nucleus
has shrunk inwards from the inner coat, presenting two additional
surfaces, which may represent original lines of structure, but are
perhaps, results of decay.

A very similar species, which occurs in vast abundance in the
interior of an erect Sigillaria at the Joggins, has the outer
coating v^ry dense and coaly, and with a transverse fibrous
structure. In some specimens it shows a projecting ridge on
each side, and longitudinal striae, which might entitle it to be
placed in the genus Rhabdocarpus ; but no coal-fossils are more
deceptive than these carpolites, which, when flattened or deprived
of their outer coats, present appearances very dissimilar from
those of the perfect condition.

I am by no means certain that this note adds much to the know-
ledge already possessed of the structure of Trigonocarpum ; but
it aff'ords an additional example, and this of a species similar to
those most frequently associated with remains of Sigillarice,

ARTICLE IX. — On the Primitive Formations in Norway and
in Canada, and their Mineral Wealth. By Thomas
Macfarlane.

{Continued from page 20.)

II. The Primitive Slate Formation.
A : The Quartzose Group,
The district in which the above-named group of rocks is prin-
cipally developed is that of Tellemarken, in the south of Norway,
celebrated by tourists as containing perhaps the most wild and
•picturesque scenery in the north of Europe. There exist also
northward from Trondhjem, some districts, where the same
group seems to prevail, but these cannot be compared with that of
Tellemarken, either in extent or economic importance ; nor have
Can. Nat. 8 Vol. VII

114 Macfarlanc on the Primitive Formations

they been studied or described so minutely * Naumann entitled
this district, the Nummedal and Tellemarken Quartz Formation ;
Keilhau described it as the Goustafjeld Region, from the mountain
which is its most distinguished topographical feature ; while Dahll
somewhat indefinitely calls it the Tellemarken Slate Formation.
The rocks which constitute this group are the following :

1. Quartzite or quartz slate. This, the most widely distributed
rock of the group, occurs in the most multifarious varieties.
Pure quartz, with a granular structure and glassy lustre, of con-
siderable transparency, and of a white or greyish-white colour, is to
be found in beds of great thickness. Fine-grained quartz, with
a fatty lustre, and rose-red or flesh-red in color, is also observed in
equally powerful beds. The most common varieties are however
the splintery, grey, and slightly micaceous quartzites, which are
known as quartz slates. Amongst the more impure varieties,
talcose, feldspathic, and hornblendic quartzites are to be distin-
guished.

2. 3Eca schist, differing considerably in general character from
that which occurs in the Primitive Gneiss Formation. The broad-
leaved very micaceous variety, with garnets, which is common in
that formation, has not been observed at all in this quartzose
series. In the constitution of the mica schist belonging to the
latter, quartz greatly preponderates, and the rock differs from
quartz slate, only in containing a somewhat larger quantity of sil-
ver-white or brownish-black mica.

3. Gneiss may be also said to occur in this group, but of a
-character widely different from what is usually understood by
this term. It is finer grained and less slaty than the characteris-
tic primitive gneiss, while the feldspar and quartz, and especially
the latter, greatly preponderate in quantity over the mica. This
latter mineral, which plays such an important part in the compo-
sition of ordinary gneiss, is very little developed, and hornblende
is never found replacing it ; so that nothing resembling hornblendic
gne^'ss is found in this group.

4. Hornstone and hornstone porphyry , passing into jasper, often
occur, and seem to consist of the same minerals, and in the same
proportions, as the two last named rocks, but so fine grained that
the species are no longer recognizable. The mica schist is seen

• According to Keilhau, the district in West Finmark and Quaenanger,
in which the Alten Copper Mines occur, belongs to this group. It ia
probable also, that another district to the east of the North Cape is of
the same formation.

in Norway and in Canada. IIS

in some places to pass into a grey, coarse, splintery, quartzose
hornstone ; while the gneiss gives a red or brown hornstone, with
fine splintery, and nearly smooth fractures.

5. Hornblende slate.

6. Talc slate.

I. Chlorite slate.

8. Clay slate.

9. Limestone has only been remarked at one place in the whole
group, where a thin bed of granular yellowish-white limestone,
occurs in the quartzose gneiss.

10. Greenstone and diorite, composed principally of albite and
hornblende, occur in large and important masses.

II. Granite does not seem to occur interstratified with the
members of this group, but frequently intersects them in the
form of veins, and also forms irregular masses.

12. Conglomerates and breccias occur in such quantity, and of
such peculiar characters, as to constitute a distinguishing feature
of the formation. The whole of the rocks already named as
forming part of this group, but especially the quartzites, often
contain beds or irregular masses, having the aspect of conglo-
merates ; which are made up of fragments of the respectively en-
closing rocks, cemented together either by a micaceous or talcose
substance. The fragments are more or less rounded, and often
of oblong forms ; they generally lie parallel with each other, but
very often bear little resemblance to boulders.

The rocks just enumerated, form layers, often of enormous
thickness,which alternate with each other, forming parallel groups,
in which one or the other of them (generally the quartz), predo-
minates. The fine and coarse grained greenstones or diorites of
the formation, are most generally in layers running parallel with
the other rocks. They sometimes however occur as veins cutting
these, and more frequently as irregular masses. The greenstone
beds are often of great extent, and pass through gradual transitions
into the neighboring rocks. A layer of diorite occurs in the
parish of Skafse, having a thickness of 1000 feet. In the middle
it is granular, but towards each side, it gradually assumes a slaty
texture. It has also been remarked of other greenstone layers in
the group, that they assume a slaty structure, as they approach
the rocks above or below them. Keilhau has the following re-
marks with regard to the extent which these greenstone or diorite
rocks occupy in the series before us. '* We may obtain a good

HB Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

idea of the extent to which this member of the group is de-
veloped, fi'om the district west of Bandag Lake. On the road to
Mo church, we are surrounded by rugged mountains about 2500
feet high, and these from the bottom of the valley to their sum-
mits, consist of the same mass of diorite, which has here a breadth
of about two geographical miles."

The conglomerates, of which mention has already been made,
have such an important bearing on the question of the origin of
the primitive slate formation, that I may be excused for inserting
here, at length, a translation of Keilhau's description of them.
These conglomerates have been observed : 1. above Hjserdal
church ; 2. on the road from Fladdal to Manddal ; and, 3. on
the road from Guldnaes to Berge, in Morgedal. " The first loca-
lity in which the conglomerate quartzites occur in repeated alter-
nations with hornblende rock (diorite), has been described by
Naumann (Beitrage I, 79). The quartz layers there consist of
what often appears to be a very fine-grained micaceous sandstone ;
in which harder round or oval concretions, sometimes feldspathic,
sometimes quartzose, and sometimes of still more varied natures,
are imbedded. The softer cementing matter is frequently worn
away, so that the harder masses stand out from the rock, like
hemispheres. The smaller and more varied in their nature these
concretions (which appear formed exactly like boulders) are, the
more talcose the enclosing mass becomes ; whereby the slaty
texture of the quarzite becomes undulating and confused."

The second of the above mentioned localities is on the Mandcela,
a short distance before it falls into the Sillegjord. The bluish-
grey, very pure and crystalline quartzite which here occurs, is
for a considerable distance around, apparently unstratified, and
cannot strictly be defined as quartz-slate. It forms powerful
masses, in the midst of which large and indistinctly limited por-
tions, are more or less thickly impregnated with small rounded
portions of quartz of the most difierent shades of color, from
white to red and dark-grey. Some of these are quartz, others
jasper, while others resemble hornstone; but all of them, even those
which most closely resemble their quartzose matrix, are sharply de-
fined, and appear like pebbles cemented into it. The fact that
these portions are not arranged as separate layers, but spread
out as irregular areas, in the massive and crystalline quartz,
is to be regarded as unfavorable to the opinion of the me-
chanical origin of these conglomerates." " At the third of the

in Norway arid in Canada, 117

above mentioned localities, the conglomerate is also enveloped
in a large group of quartzite, which contains besides, only a few
isolated masses of greenstone. The perfectly boulder-like con-
cretions of the conglomerate bed, which range from the size of a
hazelnut, to that of the human head, are here of the same sort
of greyish-white splintery quartz, which forms the strata of the
whole surrounding group. A few of them only are reddish, and
remind one of the jasper-like masses which appear to be gene-
rally associated with these conglomerate quartzites. At the Hjaerdal
locality, already described, Naumann found whole layers of jasper,
close to the conglomerate. The cementing material of the con-
glomerate betwixt Guldnaes and Berge is argillaceous, and small
in amount ; and is certainly to be regarded as analogous to the
small beds of clay slate, which occur as regular layers between the
thick quartz strata, at other points in this neighborhood. Al-
though the foliation of the pure quartzite is retained in the con-
glomerate, which is many fathoms thick, this nevertheless, like that
below Manddal, does not appear to occupy any well-defined
horizon in the stratification. In place of forming a continuous
zone along the strike, it appears rather to be a comparatively
short and irregular mass.

Occurrences of this sort, which may be regarded as belonging
at once to the quartz and to the mica schist, are found to a con-
siderable extent on the northwest of Sillegjord Lake. Here, on
the boundary of the primitive gneiss formation, at several points
where the quartzite begins to replace the mica-schist, we find
layers in which the quartz occurs in the shape of long
cylinders as thick as the finger, and rounded oflf at both ends, as
elongated almond-shaped masses ; or in the form of boulders, im-
bedded in a cement of mica schist.

Some time since, Naumann directed attention to the fact that the
amount of talc contained in the cement is greater, the more the
conglomerate is varied in its composition. I have often confirmed
this, and have moreover remarked that the talc seems to stand
in some intimate connection with these problematical rocks. This
may be the reason why they have nowhere been found more fre-
quently than on the road between Berge in Brunkeberg, and Qvale
in Hoidalsmo ; where the quartz beds are associated with other
rocks, and especially with those of a talcose nature. The most re-
markable conglomerate of this district, as well on account of its
composition, as its thickness, is splendidly exposed in a narrow

118 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

ravine called Ormebraekjuvet, which cuts across the conglom-
erate, inclined at an angle of 70°. A road and a rivulet here pass
through the ravine, and the rocks are seen in profile on both sides.
In a coarse mass of quartzose talc-slate, sometimes more or less
micaceous or argillaceous, different varieties of quartz are im-
bedded ; which have the form of small boulders, or are elongated
in the direction of the stratification. Besides these, there may
be remarked in the slate, a multitude of red and very fine-grained
feldspathic concretions, which betray here and there a gneissoid
nature, caused by dark mica-like streaks. These feldspathic con-
cretions are the more remarkable, since hitherto, no rock far or
near,has been discovered bearing the slightest resemblance to them,
although their oval form, in some parts, and the fact that they are
sometimes bent in the direction of the undulations of the sur-
rounding mass of slate, would favor the view that they are pebbles
from an older rock. They become still more remarkable when
we observe them repeated at very distant points. Exactly similar
gneissoid concretions with those of Tellemarken, of which we
here speak, have been remarked in the conglomerate rocks of
North Trondhjems Amt. The boulder-like fragments in the rock
of Ormebraekjuvet, attain the size of a closed fist, and lie usually
so near to each other, that they constitute the greater part of the
whole rock. Eastward from Holvig, towards Vase, down in Vest-
^orddalen, conglomerate talcose rocks also are found. Here, in
a talcose slate, a layer was observed including larger and smaller
kernels of quartz, sometimes almond-shaped, at other times more
irregular ; and one part, apparently segregations from the slate it-
self. The foliated portions of the rock are bent and rolled around
these masses. On the weathered surfaces of the rock, these ir-
regular, and, as it were, imbedded portions, have a lighter color
than the surrounding mass. There is probably some feldspar
present in these, as well as in the gneissoid concretions already
mentioned, and their lighter colour may be due to kaolin from its
decomposition. Southward from Holvig, a layer of similar rock
occurs, which belongs to the clay slate."

" Conglomerates which belong to the chloritic rocks in this
district, are found at various places in the upper part of Vest-
ijorddalen, in the neighborhood of the cataract Rjukanfbss.
From Vaa3, over and beyond Maristigen, a hard chloritic slate
predominates ; which appears often as if it had been torn in pieces,
and then joined together again, and which contains other very

in Norway and in Canada* 119

curious aggregations. There may be observed masses like s^r--
pentine, portions of greenstone, &c., combined in the most varied
manner with the slate ; while many phenomena render this place
suitable for a more minute study of these conglomerates."

" Farther on, at several points in the neighbourhood of Aamdal,
it may be observed that the mica schist contains concretions having
the appearance of imbedded fragments, and with an aspect,
from which one must believe that it has once been broken up,
and its pieces afterwards irregularly joined together. For ex-
ample, there is exposed between Aamdal Copper-work and Skafse
church, a large area of this character. The rock is a fine slaty
quartzose mica schist, which, as if by an internal breaking-up^
has acquired a well marked brecciated structure. Only a few of
the recemented pieces have rounded angles, the most of them
being sharp-cornered. The whole rock, but especially the frag-
ments, contain some feldspar. I will mention one other instance,
from which it appears that hornblende schist may also some-
times contain fragments of foreign masses. This is the case
on Skafseberg, over which the road leads from Mo to Skafse
church. Here the concretions are again feldspathic, and even
gneissoid, but most of them resemble rather the rudiments of
small bent layers or beds, than fragments cemented into the horn-
blende schist."*

As before remarked, the quartzites or rocks allied to them,
such as the quartzose mica schists and gneiss, constitute by far
the greatest portion of the group. Next in frequency and extent,
the greenstones or diorites may^be placed ; after these the horn-
blende, talc, and chlorite schists, and the clay -slates ; and lastly,
the conglomerates.

Foldings of the strata in the quartzose group, have been ob-
served in various places, but they do not approach, in intricacy, to
the contortions of the gneiss formation. The strata are seldom
found horizontal, and generally have a dip of more than 45° ;
although they do not seem, generally, to be so near to the
vertical as those of the gneiss formation. The direction of the
strike varies much more than in the latter, but parallel groups
have been traced upwards of eight geographical miles, on the
strike. In some places, an approach to a regular succession of
the rocks has been observed, but the particulars related are by no
means conclusive.

As before mentioned, the scenery of this district is of the most
* Geae Norvegica, I. 430.

120 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

wild and rugged nature. The Fjelds, consisting of quartz rock,
sometimes present massive peaks, rising in the shape of terraces
one above the other ; which latter form is caused by the outcrops
of the highly inclined quartz beds. Goustaijeld itself, is a huge
peak, rising to the height of 7000 feet, and presenting from a
distance, a peculiar furrowed appearance, the cause of which is
thus explained by Keilhau : — "The upper part of Goustafjeld is
formed of two varieties of quartzite, one of which is the prepon-
derating, and the other the subordinate constituent. The former
belongs to the purer varieties of the quartzite, and resists de-
composition. In the latter, which easily disintegrates to a
coarse sand, particles of feldspar are more or less abundantly
disseminated. From that part of the mountain where these rocks
are found in situ, which is about 300 feet perpendicularly beneath
the sharp ridge forming the summit, going upwards,there is observ-
able only a succession of very regular beds, having a dip of from
20° to 30°. The mountain is here so sharply peaked, that the beds
crop out, as well on the side of the direction of the dip, as on the
opposite side. If now the relations of the rocks were as usual,
the feldspathic quartzite would be found to form more or less
isolated layers, between the strata of the preponderating rock ;
but in place of this, the feldspathic quartzite extends in an entirely
opposite direction through the mass of the prevailing rock. It
goes right across the strata, and that without in the least (like
veins) interrupting the continuity of the several beds, because
these otherwise diflferent rocks, at their junction, run into each
other, the pure quartz gradually becoming feldspathic. The con-
sequence of this remarkable relation is very striking. On account
of the feldspathic quartzite being so easily disintegrated, and the
pure variety, on the other hand, resisting so well, there are
produced, where the former crops out, cuts on the ridge, and fur-
rows on the sides of the mountain. On account of the height of
the mountain (7000 feet), these furrows remain filled with snow
throughout the whole year, and are recognisable from a great dis-
tance. Thus GoustaiJ^ld preserves the marked features which
distinguish this surprisingly furrowed peak, for those who view
it from the heights of Hallingdal or Hadeland."

" It is a characteristic trait of this group, as well as of the other
sections of the country, analogous with it in geological character,
and worthy a mention at the outset, that it is especially well sup-
plied with copper ores."* This great prevalence of cop-
* Gese Norvegica I, 441 .

in Norway and in Canada, 121

per ores has given rise, since the beginning of the 16th cen-
tury, to the establishment of six different copper works or
mining establishments ; all of which however, with but one
exception, that of Aamdal, are abandoned. In describing the
various mineral deposits, I shall only refer to those of most
importance, neglecting alt ^g etlier the innumerable localities of
less value. The mines about to be described are those belonging
to the copper works of Guldn^es, Aamdal, flvideseid, Sauiand
and Hovindbygden.

The deposit on which the Giiklnaes mines occur, is probably
the most important of the whole district. It is situated on the
southwest side of Sundsbarm Lake, in the parish of Sillegjord, at
least 1500 feet above the sea, and inaccessible, unless to the foot
traveller. It has the form of a layer, and lies between a bed of
quartzite, and one of clay slate. It has a length of about 100
fathoms, and a breadth of about 100 feet, and is composed
of a flesh-red and sometimes greenish-white aggregation of
quartz, feldspar and talc ; in which purple copper and copper
pyrites are more or less abundantly disseminated. The ore is
found in irregular nests and veins, quartz accompanying it in
the latter. These irregular bunches of ore are frequently found
in such quantity, as to render the whole mass of the layer worthy
of excavation. There is not much of the rock with finely dis-
seminated mineral, and the ore is much more suited for be-
ing dressed by means of crushing and jigging, than by stamping
and washing. The latter processes were nevertheless those em-
ployed when the mines were being worked, and this may partially
account for the unsuccessful result. The copper ores occurring
here are argentiferous ; the metallic copper resulting from their
treatment, containing one per cent, of silver.

The mines belonging to the Aamdal copper works are very nu-
merous ; the most important of them being HofFnung mine, Naes-
mark mine and Mosnap mine. The works themselves, are situated
1 300 feet above the sea,on the river called Vierkselven, in the parish
of Skafse ; which is subordinate to that of Mo. Hoflfnung mine
lies about 160 feel higher, near the junction of a gneissoid gran-
ite, of eruptive origin, with the primitive slates. The two lodes
containing the ore, occur on both sides of a layer of hornblende
schist ; which varies from two to six feet in thickness, and has a fall
of from 50° to 60^ to the W.N.W. They run parallel with the
strata, and the lode underlying the hornblende schist is the most

122 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

important. It has a thickness of from four to thirty inches ; the
vein-stone is quartz, and is well filled with copper pyrites, generally
massive, seldom finely disseminated. In the deeper workings, the
lode almost contains as much purple copper as copper pyrites, with
no admixture of iron pyrites, or other mineral, except a little feld
spar. The ore, on being excavated, was crushed by flat-faced
hand hammers, brought up, by jigging, to 30 per cent., and
then smelted or sold. Nsesmark mine is like HofTnung, situated
in the immediate neighborhood of the work, on a granite vein,
two fathoms thick, which intersects primitive slates. In this vein,
(from which also side veins shoot out into the adjoining slates,)
there occur, running in a direction at right angles with its line
of strike, numerous lodes of from two to six inches thick, filled
with quartz and copper glance; the latter containing six oz. of sil-
ver per cwt. The granite in the neighborhood of these quartz
veins is also impregnated with copper glance , to such an extent,
as to make it amply worth stamping and washing. This mine is
a most promising one ; is altogether new, and the granitic vein has
been discovered at a distance of three miles from it, at Bergland
mine ; where it bears copper glance in exactly the same manner
as at Nsesmark. The ore from the quartz lodes of this mine was
brought up by hand-jigging to 70 per cent., and then either
smelted or sold. The finely divided ore was worked by stamping
and washing. Mosnap mine is about 10 miles distant from the
work, and probably lies 2000 feet above the sea. The rocks in
the neighborhood are the gneiss, mica schist, and hornblende
schist, peculiar to the quartzose group. The mine itself is situ-
ated on a granitic vein,which contains irregular quartz layers. Cop-
per pyrites, purple copper, and molybdenite are disseminated
through it, bat are more especially associated with the quartz.
The vein itself has a thickness of several feet, and were it more
conveniently situated, would doubtless be considered a very valu-
able deposit. It is only very lately that the ores from these mines
began to be treated by crushing and jigging, and then sent to
market. They were previously stamped and washed, at least the
poorer sorts, and the products were smelted at the works,
along with the richer ores. The smelting, however, even after
the discovery of a vein of fluor spar, which was used as flux, was
carried on but with indiff'erent success, on account of the highly
quartzose natures of the ores. After the introduction of jigging,
the ores were treated as follows, at the smelting works : — The
copper glance from Najsmark was calcined in a reverberatory

in Norway and in Canada, 123

furnace, and tlie silver extracted according to Ziervogel's method ;
by treating it with water, and afterwards precipitating the dis-
solved silver by metallic copper. The lixiviated residue from
this process, was then smelted together with the rich copper py-
rites and schlichs from the Hoflfnung mine, (previously calcined
in a reverberatory furnace), in a small shaft furnace. From this
operation, there resulted a slag, very rich in ferrous oxide, which
was rejected ; a regulus with 55 per cent, of copper, and a small
quantity of coarse copper. The regulus was roasted and again
smelted ; coarse copper, and a small quantity of thin regulus
being produced. The coarse copper was then refined on the small
German gahr hearth.

The two most important mines belonging to Hvideseid copper-
works, occur in the parish of Hvides, and are as follows : Haukum
mine, situated beneath BrokeQeld, in the neighborhood of a
powerful granite vein, wherein orthoclase and oligoclase are
observable. This vein intersects primitive slates, and is accom-
panied by several irregular granitic masse?, on the largest of
which the mine occurs. The granite mass is more or less impreg-
nated with purple copper, and this is occasionally accompanied
by metallic silver in fine threads ; which occur in small cavities,
with crystals of laumontite and stilblte. The crystals of laumon-
tite form fan-like groups, which are coloured green by the
oxyd of copper A very small scale of gold has been found
in this mine. The following minerals are also met with : mag-
netic iron ore, molybdenite, garnet, epidote, and traces of cop-
per pyrites.* Bandag mine is situated on the precipitous south
side of Bandag Lake. The surrounding rock bears a strong
resemblance to granitic gneiss, but nevertheless diff'ers from it
in having a larger quantity of quartz, and, as a consequence,
a lighter colour. The ore deposit lies parallel with the stra-
tification of this rock, and consists of a granular mixture of
quartz, mica, copper pyrites, purple copper, highly argentiferous
galena, zinc blende, and a little feldspar. Metallic silver in
threads, has also been remarked in this mine. The ores from
these, and other mines, were for a considerable time smelted at the
Hvideseid works, and although the smelting was ultimately aban-
doned, the operation was more successful here than anywhere else
in the district, being carried on for a longer time.

The Sauland smelting works were built for the copper ores
occurring at Guli, in the parish of Sauland, which is subordi-
• Dahll, Om Telemarken's Geologic, p. 27.

134 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

nate to Hjaerdal. The lode, which occurs in a coarse grained
diorite, is sometimes of considerable thickness, and consists of
quartz well charged with purple copper. Here, too, the smelting
was unsuccessful, even more so than elsewhere in the district.

The ore deposits near Horindbygden in the parish of Tin, are
described by Keilhau,* and are the following: I. Thatof Rodsoe
consists of a layer of quartz, containing partly massive and partly
disseminated copper glance. The thickness is about three feet,
the strike north and south, and the dip vertical. It is traceable
over a length of 200 feet. II. That of Daarudberge contains also
some copper glance in a quartz bed, two feet thick, but appears
less rich than that of Rodsoe. III. That of Vashoed is a quartz
layer of six inches thick, with a strike north and south, and con-
tains some purple copper. The adjacent rock is full of magnetic
iron ore, disseminated, and crystallized in very small octohedrons.
A deposit of iron ore has been described by Dahll,f as occur-
ring in Nissedal, between the farms Aarhuus and Sofdestad. It
appears to be a vein, and runs from north to south over the hill
called Grubeaasen. It dips 30° to 50° towards east, and has a
thickness of nine feet on an average. It is exposed for a distance
of 210 fathoms, between two small valleys. In the deepest por-
tion, it consists of magnetic iron ore, but on ascending the hill
from both sides, the magnetic ore becomes mixed with iron
glance, (specular iron ore); the quantity of which gradually in-
creases, .until, at the highest part, iron glance alone is present. The
surrounding slates are mica schist, containing a little hornblende,
hornblende schist and feldspar, and containing portions having
a granular structure. The vein is more distinctly separated from
the side rock, where it consists of magnetic ore, than when the iron
glance is present. The latter penetrates into the side rock, where
it replaces the feldspar. It is thus possible to find hand spe-
cimens consisting only of iron glance and hornblende. Quartz
and desraine are present in the vein. It is impossible to deter-
mine v/ith certainty the age of this deposit, but it is intersected
by granite veins.

In concluding this description of the quartzose division of the
primitive slate formation, and of its economic minerals, as deve-
loped in Norway, I think that the following features may be
mentioned as characteristic of the group. I. The preponderauce
of quartzose rocks ; II. The presence of conglomerates of a pecu-

* Geae Norvegica, p. 442.

fOm Telemarken's Geologie, p. 31.

m Nortvay and in Canada, 12§

liar character ; III. The prevalence of copper ores, of a high per-
centage, unmixed with iron pyrites ; the veinstone accompanying
them being quartzose, and therefore diflScultly fusible ; IV. The
presence of iron glance in the few deposits of iron ore occurring
in the group.

The equivalent of these rocks in Canada appears to be the
Huronian formation. In support of this view I shall avail
myself of the minute descriptions of the latter to be found in the
Reports of the Geological Survey, and particularly in Sir W. E.
Logan's Report on the north shore of Lake Huron. The rocks of
the Huronian formation are, by these authorities, described as fol-
lows:

" The quartzites have sometimes the aspect of sandstones, but
at other times lose their granular texture, and become a vit-
reous quartz. Not unfrequently the quartzite is thin bedded, and
even schistose in its structure, and it sometimes holds a Uttle
mica, passing into a variety of mica schist;

** These quartzites often become conglomerate, enclosing pebbles
of quartz and various coloured jaspers. These pebbles are some-
times arranged in thin layers among fine grained beds. At other
times, the conglomerates form thicker beds, which swell into moun-
tain masses; including great portions which contain blood-red
jaspers in a white matrix, constituting a very beautiful rock.

" In addition to these, there are conglomerates of a distinctly
diflferent character, belonging to this formation. They are somposed
chiefly of syenitic pebbles, held in a grey argillo-arenaceous ce-
ment,which is more frequently of a greenish color, from the presence
of chlorite. The pebbles, which are of reddish and grey colors,
vary greatly in size, being sometimes no larger than swan shot,
and at others, boulders rather than pebbles, measuring upwards
of a foot in diameter.

" The quantities in which they are aggregated vary much.
They sometimes constitute nearly the whole mass of the rock,
leaving but few interstices for a matrix, and sometimes on the
contrary, they are so sparingly disseminated through con-
siderable portions, as to leave spaces of several feet between
neighboring pebbles ; which are still, in such cases, often several
inches in diameter. With the syenitic pebbles, are occasionally
associated some of diflferent colored jaspers. The matrix ap-
pears often to pass on the one hand, into the grey quartz rock, by
an increased proportion of the arenaceous particles ; and on the
other, into a thin bedded greenish fine grained slate, which is

126 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

sometimes very chloritic. In a third form, the matrix is scarcely
distinguishable from a fine grained greenstone In the slate, the
stratification is often marked by slight differences of color, in the
direction of which, it is occasionally clcavable. The bands in
other instances, are firmly soldered together, but in both cases,
joints usually prevail, dividing the rock into rhomboidal forms,
which are sometimes very regular."

These slates sometimes approach to argillites, but often, through
the chloritic varieties, appear to pass into greenstone or diorite,
which, in its typical form, consists of a greenish white feldspar,
with dark green or black hornblende. The feldspar is sometimes
however, more or less tinged with red, and the rock then occa-
sionally appears to pass into a kind of syenite, by the addition of
a very sparing amount of quartz. These two forms of the rock
are generally highly crystalline, and not very fine grained. The
greenstone, however, sometimes displays a fine texture ; and in
such cases it frequently holds much disseminated chlorite, giving
it a very decided green colour. Portions are found, containing
so great a proportion of the mineral, as to yield with facility to
the knife.

Associated with these, are three bands of impure limestone,
often silicious and sometimes dolomitic, the uppermost one of
which, is interstratified with a large amount of hornstone, in
very regular beds. The total thickness of the formation on
Lake Huron, is estimated about 18,000 feet; of which more than
10,000 feet are quartzites, including the jasper conglomerates.
900 feet of the remainder are hmestone and hornstone bands, and
the remainder the slate conglomerates, with chloritic and epidotic
slates the whole being interstratified with diorites.

While the great mass of these greenstones or diorites, are sup-
posed to be altered sedimentary beds,there are other greenstones,
which, as well as certain granites in the formation, are evidently
intrusive.

The most important mineral deposits of the Huronian series
are the copper lodes at the Bruce, Wellington, and Huron Bay
mines. The ores are here yellow and purple sulphuret, in veins,
of quartz, which cut the diorites of the region. According to Sir
W. E. Logan's careful examination of the Bruce Mines, made in
1848, about 3000 square fathoms of the lodes were computed to
contain, on an average, 6^ per cent, of copper. Since then, about
9000 tons of 18 per cent, ore have been raised from the mine,
which has been opened to a depth of 50 fathoms. Attempts

i7i Norway and in Canada, 127

were made to smelt the ores, in a furnace erected on tlie spot, but
they are now shipped to Great Britain or to the United States.
The adjacent mines appears to be yielding even larger quantities
of ore than the Bruce. Copper mining has been attempted also
at Root River, at Echo Lake, and in many other localities in this
formation ; which, like its Norwegian equivalent, appears to be
eminently cupriferous. At the Wallace mine on Lake Huron,
copper pyrites occurs, with an arsenical snlphuret of nickel, but
the deposit has not been much examined. In the same vicinity,
Mr. Murray has described a bed of specular iron or red hematitic
ore, and he has shown that the immense deposits of this ore now
so extensively wrought at Marquette, in Northern Michigan, be-
long to the Huronian formation.

From this sketch of the Huronian formation I think it will
appear evident that the same particulars characterize it as the cor-
responding group in Norway, viz: L The preponderance of
quartzose rocks. H. The presence of conglomerates of peculiar
character. HI. The occurrence of great masses of interstratified
diorites or greenstones. IV. The beds of hornstone or chert.
V. The presence of copper ores of a high percentage, unmixed
with iron pyrites ; the veinstone accompanying them being of
quartzose. VI. The presence of iron glance (specular iron ore)
in the few deposits of iron ore occurring in the group.

In the absence of organic remains, it seems to me that the only
means left of identifying the same group in remote localities, is
to compare minutely their petrographical and other physical
characters. If this view be correct, there can be little doubt but
that the quartzose division of the primitive slate formation in
Norway, and the Huronian formation of Canada, are identical.

In conclusion, I have to remark with regard to the development
of the mineral resources of both formations, that more appears to
have been accomplished in this respect in Canada, than in Norway;
seeing that the copper mines on the north shore of Lake Huron
have had more permanency than those of Tellemarken. Greater
progress is probably attributable only to the greater amount of
capital which has been invested in the former mines. The ob-
tacles met with have been substantially the same in both coun-
tries : the remoteness and inaccessibility of the region from the
ordinary markets, and the difficulties in the treatment of the ores.
These however have been overcome in this country, and the prin-
cipal mines on Lake Huron are now well established, and pro-
fitably wrought.

128

New Spectrum ditcovmes.

M

■fl

B-B-

■ Cff u

II II

dirrm

o

Ni;i

1-1 c^

New Spectrum discoveries, 129

ARTICLE X. — The New Spectrum discoveries:^

We give in this number a series of illustrationsf of the spectra
of flames, in which salts of Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Stron-
tium, Calcium, Barium, and Caesium are volatilized, with the
solar spectrum for the sake of comparison.

Fig. 1 represents the solar spectrum, with the most remarkable
of Fraunhofer's lines indicated by transverse bars.

Fig. 2 is the potassium spectrum, nearly continuous between
Fraunhofer's lines G and D, but showing beyond these limits, two
characteristic lines, one named Ka, correspondent to the dark line
A, at the red extremity of the solar spectrum, and one Ky8, near the
remote extremity of the spectrum, and coincident with another of
Fraunhofer's lines. A third line, less distinct, and therefore less
valuable for purposes of analysis, coincides with the solar line B.

The sodium spectrum is seen in Fig. 3, and is eminently char-
acteristic. It is distinguished by a single brilliant yellow lineNa,
and coincident with the dark solar line D.

Fig. 4 exhibits the peculiarities of the lithium spectrum. It
shows an intensely brilliant crimson line Li a, and one less dis-
tinct orange line Li ^.

The strontium spectrum (Fig. 5), is move complex ; out of eight
remarkable lines, six red, one orange, and one blue, four may be
particularized, the orange line Sr a, the two red lines Sr /?, and
fcjr y, and the splendid biue line Sr S.

The spectrum represented in Fig. 6 is that of calcium, present-
ing two characteristic lines, the bright green line Ca jS, and the
intense orange line Ca a.

Of all these spectra, that of barium, represented in Fig. 7, is
the most complicated. Three green lines, Ba a, Ba /3, Ba y, are
most to be relied on for the determination of this spectrum.

The new metal caesium, the spectrum of which is represented
by Figure 8, was discovered by Bunsen from the appearance of
the two blue lines Ca a and Ca (S, in the spectrum produced
when the residue from the evaporation of the mineral waters of
Baden and of Diirklieim was iguited.

Buuseu afterwards announced the discovery of another of
new metal, which he names rubidium, and which he detected in
a similar manner in the residues of the same mineral waters, by

* See page 224 of the last volume of Canadian Naturalist.
t Reduced from the London Review.
Can. Nat. 9 Vol. YII.

1 30 Saunders* List of Diurnal Lepidoptera.

the appearance of two red lines beyond the visible red of the
solar spectrum. These new metals have since been found widely
distributed but in very small |)roportions. Mr. Grand eau, by the
evaporation of several thousand litres of the waters of Vicliy, col-
lected about two grammes of the double chloride of platinum and
caesium, and a still smaller proportion of the same salt of rubidi-
um. A larger amount of both these metals is present in the
waters of Bourbonne-les-Bains, and the same chimist has found
them in different specimens of lepidolite, in the refubC of salt-
petre manufactories, and elsewhere. s. P. R.

ARTICLE XL — List of Diurnal Lepidoptera collected (unless
otherwise specified) in the immediate vicinity of London*
C. W. By W. Saunders.

(Read before the Natural History Society.^
In naming these insects, preference has been given to the family
names in the Smithsonian Catalogue, as being the most reliable and
easily accessible authority, but where long usage has popularized
certain family names they will be found enclosed in brackets.

Papilio turnusj Linn. — Not uncommon.

" troilus, Linn. — Common.

" Philenor, Linn. — From Rev. Chas. J. S. Bethune, Cobourg. This
fine insect taken in such numbers at West Flamboro' by
Mr. B. in June 1858, See Canadian Naturalist for Au-
gust 1858, is not uncommon about Toronto, and has also
been taken near Woodstock.

" Asteriasj Fab. — Common everywhere.

" Thoas, Linn. — This splendid butterfly, usually considered pecu-
liarly southern, has been taken in Canada by the Rev.
Dr. Sands, of Chatham, C. W. Several years since he
captured three specimens on the Mersey, one of which
is now in possession of the Lord Bishop of Huron. The
Rev. Dr. states that they are not uncommon in that lo-
cality, and that they are found through several townships.*
He has repeatedly seen specimens on the wing, since the
captures above alluded to were made. Although I have
no Canadian specimen of P. Thoas the fact of its un-
doubted occurrence in Canada is a matter of too much
interest to entomologists to allow it to continue unno-
ticed.

* P. thoas has also been seen on the wing near Port Stanley, by a res-
ident collector, but the insect being exceedingly difficult to capture, he
has never succeeded in taking one.

Saunders* List of Diurnal Lepidoplera, 131

Pieris Protodice. Boisd. — Common some seasons. Very plentiful last
summer.
" oleracea^ Harris. — Rather scarce around London, but generally
common throughout this part of the province.
Terias Lisa, Boisd. — One specimen taken at Port Stanley last August,
where it was rare. Mr. T. Reynolds, has sent me a pair
from Hamilton, where it appears to be more common.
Danais Archippus, Fab. — Common everywhere.
Argynnis Cybele, Godt.— Usually abundant.

" Myrina, Cram. — Common in wet places.
" Bellona, Godt. — Common in wet places.

" Aphrodite, Godt. — Usually common. Concerning the identity
of this species with A. Cybele there exists much diversity
of opinion. Boisduval states that the difference between
them is merely sexual, while other writers regard them
as distinct species. They are both undoubtedly subject
to considerable variation, and they incline to run into
each other, but the larvae must be made a further sub-
ject of study before the opinions of either side can be
fully established. In the meantime I must confess I am
inclined to look upon them as distinct.
Melitcea Phceton, Cram. — Of this butterfly I have only one specimen,
which was taken by a friend last summer at Hall's mills,
about seven miles from London. At the time it was cap-
tured they were tolerably common in that locality but
upon visiting the spot a week or two after not one could
be found.
" ismeria, Boisd. et Leconte. — Not uncommon, although chiefly

confined to one or two favorite spots.
" Tharos, Cram. — Abundant.
Grapta (^Vanessa) interrogationis, Godt. — Common in the neighborhood of
hop-yards.
" " comma, Harris. — Not common.

Vanessa J-alhum, — Boisd. et Leconte. — Generally common, but much
scarcer than usual for the last one or two years.
" Milberti, Encyc. — Usually abundant.
" Progne, Cram. — Common.
" Antiopa, Linn. — Plentiful.
Pyrameis (^Vanessa) Atalanta, Linn. — Common.

" " cardui, Linn. — Usually abundant.

" " Huntera, Smith. — Common.

Inonia " ccenia, Boisd. et Leconte. — Taken at Port Stanley, Au-

gust 1861. See Canadian Journal for November 1861.
Nymphalis (Limenitis) Ursula, Fab. — Rare. Of this beautiful insect three
specimens have been taken in this vicinity within the
last two years. It has also occurred at Port Stanley
where it has been somewhat more plentiful.

132 Sauvders* List of Diurnal Lepidoptera.

Nymphalis (Limenitis) j^rthemu, Drury. — Not common.

" " disippusj Godt. — Common.

Neonympha eurythris, Fab. — Very common in wet places and on the bor-
ders of swamps.
" canthus, Linn. — Rare, Found usually in swamps.

Erehia nephele, Kirby. — Sent from St. Catherines by D. W. Beadle, Esq.,

where it is usually plentiful.
Thecla falacer, Godt. — Taken at Port Stanley in August 1861, when it

was common in one locality not far from the town.
Thecla niphon, Boisd. et Leconte. — Rare.
" mopsus, Boisd. et Leconte. — Not common.
" laeta, Edwards (new species). — Rare.

" a^adica, Edwards (new species). — Very rare. These last two are
new species which the collector has had the fortune to
discover. They were both taken within a mile of
London. Of T. Zaefa, which is a very handsome little crea-
ture, two specimens have been taken ; of T. acadica only
one. They will probably be soon described by Mr. Ed-
wards who has named them.
Argus Pseudargiolus, Boisd. et Leconte. — Not common.
Polyommatus comyntas, Godt. — Taken at Port Stanley in August 1861,
where it is common some seasons.
" phleas, Godt. — Abundant everywhere.
" thoe, Boisd. et Leconte. — Generally scarce.
Lycana Scudderij Edwards. — This handsome little blue, recently described
by W. H. Edwards, Esq., in the Journal of the Proceedings
of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, is very
common in one locality near London. It extends from
the cemetery to the Great Western Railway track, and
along the line for about a quarter of a mile. Here early
in June and again in August it may be taken in consi-
derable numbers.
Goniloba (Eudamus) Tityrus, Smith.- — Rare.
Jfisoniades (^Thanaos) Juvenalis, Smith. — Common.
" " Catullus, Smith.— Rare.

" " Brizo, Boisd. et Leconte. — Common.

Cyclopidas coras, Cram. (Hesperia otho. Boisd. et Leconte) Not common,
Pamphila viatellius, Smith. — Common.

" origenes, Fab.— (Hesperia cernes. Boisd. et Leconte) Common,
" Zabulon, Boisd et Leconte. — Abundant.
" Peckii, Kirby. — Common.
Hesperia bathyllus, Smith. — Not common.

The collector takes this opportunity of acknowledging his in-
debtedness to Mr. W. H. Edwards, Newburgh, N, Y. for kindly
determining a number of the smaller butterflies.

Ross on Botanical and Mineral Products. 133

ARTICLE. XII. — An account of the Botanical and Mineral pro-
ducts^ useful to the Ckipewyan tribes of Indians, inhabiting
the McKenzie River District. By Bernard R. Ross,
H.B.CS.

(^Read before the Natural History Society of Montreal.')

A nation of hunters, paying no attention whatsoever to agri"
culture, can enjoy but few of the numerous benefits aflforded by
the vegetable kingdom to the human race in general. Such is
the condition of the Chipewyan tribes of Indians. Though the
benefits derived from the inighty forests which fill the Mackenzie
valley, are but few to their denizens, they may be considered not-
withstanding their fewness, to be of essential, indeed of vital im-
portance to the existence of the aboriginal dwellers in these wilds ;
since without fuel to warm them, and without canoes to migrate,
they would soon cease to exist.

From the vegetable kingdom are derived fuel, canoes, sleds,
paddles, snow-shoes, baskets, dyes and food, besides other articles
which will be noticed hereafter. Two trees, the canoe birch
(^Betula papyracea) and the white spruce (^Abies alba) stand out,
^rom their importance, in bold relief; but the larch and willow are
used also, as well as several kinds of plants,which furnish medicines,
dyes, and edible berries that are useful in periods of scarcity. Indeed
in summer, a considerable portion of the ordinary food, as well as
the luxuries of the natives, is drawn from this source.

According to the method adopted in my former paper on the
zoological products, I shall pass the various uses of each species
briefly in review : —

The Canoe or Paper Birch (Betula papyracea). — The benefits
which this valuable tree confers on the inhabitants of the McKenzie
River District, are many and important. Its baik is used in the
construction of canoes, and in the manufacture of various utensils
for domestic use, such as drinking cups, dishes, and baskets. It
also yields spunk or touchwood of the best quality. Of its woodi
platters, axe-helves, paddles, snow-shoe-frames, dog-sleds and other
articles are made, and as it is a strong and durable material, of
close grain, and susceptible of receiving a tolerable polish, the
white residents avail themselves of it for the construction of furni-
ture. In spring, the sap forms a pleasant drink, from which a
syrup can be manufactured by boiling, and which may be further
transformed, by fermentation, into an agreeably flavoured wine of
considerable potency. Beyond the arctic circle, the birch is rare

134 Ross on the Botanical and Mineral Products

and stunted, though it is found as high as 10° N. The largest
and finest trees in the district, grow on the banks of the Lrards,
or river of the Mountains. Since the advent of missionaries into
these wilds, the natives who are Christianized, use the bark for
paper on which to engrave their syllabic literature, as well as for
letter- writing.

The White Spruce (Abies alba). — This is pre-eminently the
forest tree of McKenzie's River District, and grows a considerable
distance within the arctic circle, as high as the 69th paral-
lel. It is used for the thin hoops or verrandis and lining of
bark canoes. With its tough roots split to a convenient thick-
ness, and used under the cree name of mattape the pieces of
canoe bark are sewed together. Tasteful baskets and dishes are
also manufactured from it, as well as kettles capable of containing
water. Before the arrival of traders the Indians used these for
cooking their food, which was done by dropping heated stones
into the water until it boiled. In districts where the birch is
scarce, or for temporary use, a rade canoe is made from the
spruce. For this purpose, a well grown tree, with thirty feet or so
clear of branches, is chosen ; an incision is made down to the
wood along one side, and the bark being skillfully raised in one
piece, receives the canoe shape by being skewered together, and
having a few willows inserted for verrandis to add to its stiffness.
It is serviceable for a short period only, heat and cold being alike
destructive to this species of craft, by rendering the spruce bark
dangerously brittle. Pieces of the bark are used for cover-
ing houses of the white residents, and also by the natives for roof-
ing temporary sheds or cabins. The gum is used for paying the
seams of canoes and is chewed by the female aborigines,
to the whiteness of whose teeth the habit contributes in no small
degree.

From the fibrous bark of the willow a species of twine is made
which the natives manufacture into nets of great durability. Sleds
are made of the larch and the Banksian pine. The Loucheux In-
dians use the black seed of the bear-berry for beads, to ornament
their dresses with. Alder bark, the wild sorrel, and other shrubs
and plants are used for dyes and medicines. While the straw-
berry, raspberry, gooseberry, mossberry, cranberry, crowberry>
mooseberry, red bearberry, the fruit of the rose, and various roots
contribute an important item to their summer larder.

Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians, 135

Mineral Products.

The mineral kingdom affords but few and unimportant articles
for the necessities of the Indians.

Sulphur is found in considerable quantities at the Sulphur Cove
on Great Slave Lake. Here sulphur springs occupy a space of
several hundred yards in length along the beach. They are very
clear, and flow in small rivulets, whose banks are encrusted with
a deposit of sulphur which becomes serviceable when thoroughly
dried, and is used by the Chipewyan Indians who come to Fort
Resolution, in the fabrication of matches.

Common Salt is procured from the salt plains lying about 20
miles up the Salt Elver, a tributary of the Slave. The springs is-
sue from the base of a long ridge, some hundreds of feet in height,
and spreading their waters over a clayey plain, deposit the salt by
evaporation in cubical crystals of various degrees of fineness. The
mother liquor flows into Salt River, giving a name as well as a most
abominable taste to that stream, which is still sensibly brackish
at its junction with the Slave. At present, the main supply of salt
is confined to one large jet d^eau from which a strong brine,
mingled with completely formed crystals, is perpetually thrown.
Around this spring, evaporation has formed a hillock of dry salt
many feet high ; and a pole forty feet long was shoved into the
spring without finding boltom. Sir John Richardson considers
that these fountains belong to the Onondaga Salt group of the
Upper Silurian Series of New York.

Numerous bands of buffalo, elk, and reindeer frequent these
plains to lick the mineral, of which they are extremely fond*
The salt is of excellent quality, strong and well-flavoured. It
preserves meat, meal, and butter, fully as well as that imported
from England, being far superior to the description manufactured
in the plain country of the Swan River District. As the Salt
River is very crooked, with generally too litt.le water to float any
craft larger than a small canoe, the transport of the salt from the
springs to its mouth is by horses.

Ochres, red and blue, are procured at several points in the Dis-
trict, and are ueed for painting snow-shoes and sleds, by the na-
tives. The Loucheux of the Youcon River paint their faces with
these colors in the same way as the tribes of the Plain.

White earth or Pipeclay is found associated with the coal beds
at the mouth of Bear River. When newly dug, it is plastic, but

136 Ross on the Botanical and Mineral Products

soon dries. It is eaten in times of scarcity by the natives, and is
also used as a soap for washing their clothes, and by the whites
for white-washing their houses. At the request of Sir John
Richardson it was analyzed by Drs. Davy and Prout, but was not
found to contain any nutritious matter.

Mineral Tar is procured at several spots along the Arthabaska
or Clear Water River ; it is also found on Great Slave Lake, at a
short distance N. E. of Big Island, and also near to Fort Good
Hope. It is little used by the natives, except to mix with and to
soften gum f « r paying canoes with. It becomes, after being boiled
and purified, an excellent tar for boat-building purposes, for which
it is used.

Iron Pyrites is found in the Mountain Ranges. The Gens-
des-Bois, a tribe living on the banks of the Pelly River, use it
instead of flint to strike fire with.

Pieces of Agate are used occasionally as flints, and native cop-
per has been made into knives, spear and arrow heads.

Lignite exists in large quantities near the mouth of Bear River
where it is seen in a state of combustion. It is of little value as fuel,
and quite unserviceable for forge use. The legend told by the Slave
and Dog Rib Indians, of the origin of the fire in these lignite
beds is rather curious. The story relates that in the days of old,
before Indians roamed the forest, or glided over the waters in their
birchen canoes, a giant, tall as a pine tree, dwelt at the east-
ern end of Slave Lake, then a much larger sheet of water. The
giant hungered and he went to hunt. His spear was a tall fir-tree,
hardened in the fire, and tipped with native copper. The skins
of gigantic elks served him for clothing. Travelling on, he found
a beaver-house ; the beavers in those days were of extraordinary
size, and their houses of corresponding proportions. With great
exertion and toil, the house was broken open : it contained two
animals, a female and her young. The latter was killed, but the
dam escaped, pursued by the giant, who bore the dead cub over
his shoulder on the point of his spear. On they sped, until the
western end of the lake was reached, where a rocky barrier then
stretched across. Through this, the beaver pushed her way, giv-
ing vent to the waters of the lake, and thus forming the Tess-
chi or McKenzie's River, the flood of which swept her down-
wards, far out of the pursuer's reach. The giant still continued
the chase, until hungry and exhausted, he reached the mouth of
Bear River, where he stopped to cook the cub, which was the

Useful to the Chipeivyan Tribes of Indians. 337

size of a moose- deer ; and thus lit the fire which continues burning
to the present day.

With these I think I have completed this series of notes, in
which I believe that nothing of importance to the comfort or wel-
fare of the natives omittt^d.

Among the Eskimos, the arts and manufactures of savage life
are in a much more advanced state than among the Indian tribes,
and I trust that I shall, at some future period, have the gratifica-
tion of laying an account of them before the Natural History So-
ciety of Montreal.

ARTICLE XIII. — List of Mammals, Birds, and Eggs, observed

in the McKenzie^s River District, with Notices. By Bernard

R. Ross, Corresi)onding Member Nat. His. Soc. Montreal.

(^Presented to the Natural History Society.)

MAMMALS.

Order 1. — Rapacia.

(Insectivora.)

Family SoRECiDiE.

Genus Sorex.

1. Sorex Fosteri? (Richardson). ^ This genus is abundant throughout

the district as far north as the Arctic
I coast, I cannot speak confidently as
I to either the names or the number of

2. Sorex palustris? (Bachm). J the species.

(Carnivora.)

Family Felid^.

Gentis Lynx.

3. Lynx Canadensis (Rafen). — Canada Lynx — Loup-cervier, of the Ca-

nadians — Cat, of the Hudson's Bay residents — Pichen of
the Cree Indians and Red River half-breeds — Ch^e-say
of the Chipewyan Indians. This animal is numerous
some years, but is migratory, following the hare (Lepus
Americanus) its principal food. It ranges to the Arctic
coast in summer. In winter, it does not leave the shelter
of the woods.

Family Canid^.

(Lupinae.)

Genus Canis.

4. Canis griseo-albus (Rich.) — Strongwood Wolf — Loup-gris, of the Ca-

nadians — Maheecan of the Cree Indians — Nun-dee-yah of
the Chipewyan Indians— Mah-nu(5kh of the Anderson Ri-
ver Eskimos — Yess of the Copper Indians. Of this species
I consider that there are two varieties, one of which is

1 38 Ross on the Mammals, Birds j and Eggs

of dark color and large size, inhabiting the wooded por-
tions of the district as far north as the Youcon River.
The other is usually a dirty white tint, with in general
a dark stripe down the back, and frequents the barren
grounds N. to the Arctic cost. It is of smaller size than
the first mentioned variety, and lives in much larger
bands ; Indeed it may possibly be a distinct species.

(Vulpinae.)
Genus Vulpes.

5. Vulpes fulvus : var. fulvus, var. decussatus, var. argentatus. Red.

Silver, and Cross Foxes. Ma-kay-sis of the Cree Indians
— Naw-k^e-thay of the Chipewyan Indians. Pee-soot-
eh of the Anderson River Eskimos. This species, in all
its varieties, is found all over this district to the Arctic
coast. They are most numerous around the shores of
the lakes, and in swampy tracts on the banks of the
larger rivers. In the mountain ranges they are rare.
The proportions of the various colors killed in the Mc-
Kenzie district is as follows : Red ^ ; Cross -^g ;
Silver fj.

6. Vuljyes lagopus, var. Lagopus, var. fuliginosus. — White and Blue

Foxes. Both these varieties inhabit the barren grounds
and shores of the Arctic coast. The latter is exceedingly
rare, much more so than the Silver Fox is in the fulvus
species. White Foxes have been killed on the south
shore of Great Slave Lake, and a single blue one on the
North shore.

Family Mustelid^e.
(Martinse.)

Genus Mustela.

7. Mustela Americana (Turton) — American Sable — Marten-tha of the

Chipewyan Indians — Naw-they or Nau-fey of the Slave
Indians. Common wherever there are woods, but mi-
gratory. The farther north that the skin is obtained,
the darker the tint of the fur. On the Youcon River
they strongly resemble the Siberian Sable.

8. Mustela Pennantii (Erxleben). — Fisher — Pecan of the Canadians.

Zha-cho, or big Marten of the Chipewyan Indians. Rare-
Range to 62° north.

Genus Putorius.

9. Putorius pusillus (Aud. v. Bach.) — Least Weasel— New York to Big

Iceland. Great Slave Lake.

10. Putorius Cicognanii (Bonap). — Small brown Weasel. Boston to 62°

North. Common.

11. Putorius? Richardsonii (Bonap.) — Little Ermine. Boston to Lapierres

House. Rather rare.

Observed in the McKenzie River DistricL 139

12. Putorius ? Noveboracensis (Dekay). — Ermine. Northern New York

to 62° north. Rare.

13. Putorius ? longicauda (Richards.) — Long-tailed Weasel. Upper

Missouri to 62° N.; rare. I am far from certain of the
identities of the three last species. All the Ermines
which are killed in this district have the white of the
winter coat slightly tinged with sulphur-yellow.

14. Putorius vison (Rich.) — Brown Mink — Teth, jew-say, of the Chip-

ewyan Indians. Trai-ek-puck, of the Eastern Eskimos.
Florida to the Arctic coast. Common.

15. Putorius nigrescens (Aud. & Bach.) — Little black Mink. Northern

New York to 62'' north. This species is nothing more
than the young of the P. Vison.

Genus Gulo.

16. Gulo luscus (Sabine). — "Wolverine — carcajou — No-gah, of the Chip-

ewyan Indians ;-kha-vig of the Eastern Eskimos. North-
New York to Arctic coast. Common.

Luteins.

Genus Lutra.

17. Lutra Canadensis (Sabine). — Otter. — Naw-pee-ah of the Chipewyan

Indians. Florida to the Arctic coast. Not uncommon.

MELINiE.

Genus 3Iephitis.

18. Mephitis mephitica (Shaw). — Common Skunk. Texas to Fort Reso-

lution, Great Slave Lake. I have never seen a living
specimen of this animal in McKenzie's River: but I found
the bones and a part of the skin of one at a short distance
from the shores of Great Slave Lake.

Family Ursid^.
Genus Ursus.

19. Ursus horrihilis (Ord).— Grizzly Bear. Sas-tel-kieof the Chipewyan

Indians. Plains of Upper Missouri to Youcon River.
Not rare in the mountain ranges.

20. Ursus Americanus: ^a.v. Americanus var. cinna77ion€MS (Aud & Bach).

Black and brown Bears : Sas of the Chipewyan Indians.
Common throughout to the Arctic circle and beyond.
The brown variety is very rare.

21. Ursus ardos? Barren-§:round bear. Inhabits the barren-grounds

and Arctic coasts. Distinguished from the U. horribilis
by its smaller size and reddish coloration.

22. Ursus maritimus (Linn.) — Polar Bear. Nait-suck of the Eastern

Eskimos. Common along the Arctic coasts.

140 Ross on the Mammals, Birds, and Eggs

Order 5. — Rodentia,

Family SciuRiDiE.

(Steturinse.)

Genus Steturus.

23. Sciurus Hudxonius (Pallas). — Chickaree. Throughout to within the

Arctic circle.

Genus Pteromys.

24. Pteromys alpinus (Rocky Mountain flying Squirrel) (Richardson).

Found on the mountain ranges of the Liards River.
Rather rare.

Genus Tamias.

25. Tamias ^warfrm^tof MS (Richardson). — Missouri striped Squirrel, from

Lat. 83° 30' to 67° worth. Very abundant on the
Liards River.

Genus Arctomys.

26. Arctomys monax (Gmelin). — Ground-hog. South Carolina to 62°

North. Rare.

27. Arctomys pruinosus (Gmelin). — N. to Arctic circle. Abundantinthe

mountain ranges.

28. Arctomys Kennicottii (Ross). — This I consider to be a new species,

but may be wrong. It is of small size, and inhabits
the northernmost ranges of the Rocky Mountains.

(Castorinse.)

Genus Castor.

29. Castor Canadensis (Kuhl).— Beaver. Isa of the Chipewyan Indians.

Throughout North America, to within the Arctic circle;
very abundant.

Family Murid^.

(Murinse.)

Genus Jaculus.

30. Jaculus Hudsonius (Wagler). — Jumping Mouse — Pennsylvania to

Youcon River. Common at Portage La Sache ; rare in
McKenzie's River.

Genus ffesperomys.

31. Hesperomys (Gapper) Hamster Mouse. New York to the Arctic

Sea, very abundant E. of the Rocky Mountains; not found
westward on the Youcon River. This species is very
annoying in dwellings, as it carries off quantities of sugar,
rice, &c. in its cheek pouches, to store them up for its
winter consumption.

Genus Arvicola.

32. Arvicola riparia (Ord). — Middle States to Arctic Sea. Common.

33. Arvicola Rickardsonii (Dekay). — 62° north. Rare.

34. Arvicola xaiithognathus (Leeich). — Red-cheeked Arvicole. North to

the Arctic Sea. Common.

Observed in the McKenzie River District. . 141

Genus Fiber.

35. Fiber zibethicus (Cuvier). — Musk-rat; Djin of the Chipewyan In-

dians. North America to the Arctic Sea, abundant.
Family HYSTRiciDiE.
Genus Erithezon.

36. Erithezon dorsatus (Cuvier). — White-haired Porcupine, From

Pennsylvania to within the Arctic circle. Common.

37. Erithizon epixanihus (Brandt). — Yellow-haired Porcupine. From

Upper Missouri to Liards River.

Family Leporid^,
Genus Lepus.

38. Lepus Americanus (Erxl.) — "White Rabbit. Kha of the Chipewyan

Indians. From Virginia to within the Arctic circle.
Abundant ; Migratory.

39. Lepus glacialis (Leach). — Arctic Hare — Xewfoundland N. to the

Arctic Sea; not common.

Genus Lagomys.

40. iogomysjjrinceps (Richardson). — Little Chief Hare — Commonamong

the mountain ranges of the Liards River.

Order 3, — Ruminantia.

Family Cervid^.

(Cervinae.)

Genus Alee.

41. Alee Americanus (Jardine). — Moose — Fin-dee-yah of the Chipewyan

Indians. New York to within the Arctic circle. Abun-
dant.

Genus Rang if er.

42. Rangifer caribou (And. & Bach.) — Strong-wood Caribou. From

Maine to the Youcon River, Abundant.

43. Rangifer Groenlandicus. — Barren-ground Caribou. Barren grounds,

and Arctic coasts in spring, summer and autumn.
Fringes of the woods in winter.

Family Cavicornia.

(Antilopinse.)

Genus Aptocerus.

44. Aplocerus montanus (Richardson). — Mountain Groat. From North-

ern Cascade Mountains to the Arctic Sea. Not common.
(OviNiE.)
Genus Ovis.

45. Ovis wxmtana (Cuvier). — From the Upper Missouri to within the

Arctic ciicle.

(Bovine.)

Genua Ovibos*

46. Ovibos moschatus (Blainville). — Musk ox, Eh-gir-ray-yaz-ey,

142 Ross on the Mammals, Birds, and Errors

(Little Buffalo) of the Chipewyan Indians. Barren
grounds and Arctic coast. Not rare.
Genus Bos.

47. Bos Americanus (Gmelin). — Bison — North to Little Buffalo River ;

Great Slave Lake.

Order 4. — Cheiroptera.

48. Vespertilio subulatus, (Say.) — North to Salt River. Very rare.

BIRDS.

(Those marked * are winter residents : f Eggs procured.)
Order 1. — Raptores.
Family Falconid^.
Genus Falco.

I. Falco anatum, (Bonap.) — Duck Hawk. North to Slave Lake. Rare.
f2. Falco columbarius, (Linn.) — Pigeon Hawk. North to Lapierre's

House. Common.
fS. Falco sparveriuSj (Linn.) — Sparrow Hawk. North to Lapierre's
House. Rather rare.

Genus Astur.

4. Astur atricapilluSj (Bonap.) — Black Hawk. North to Port Good

Hope. Rare.

Genus Archihuteo.

5. Archihuteo sancti, Johannis, (Gray.)— Black Hawk. North to Salt

River. Rare.

6. " lagopus, (Gmelin.)— Rough-legged Hawk. North to La-

pierre's House. Common.

7. " ferrugineus? (Gray.) — Squirrel Hawk. N. to Simpson.

Uncertain. Rare.

Genus Buteo,
fS. Buteo Swainsonii, (Bonap.) — Swainson's Buzzard. N. to Slave Lake.
Rare.

Genus Accipiter.
]9. Accipiter fuscus, (Gmelin.) — Sharp shinned Hawk. N. to Simpson.
Common.

Genus Cli'cus,
10. Circus Hudsonicus, (Lacep.) — Marsh Harrier. N. to Slave Lake.
Rather common.

Genus Aquila.

II. Aquila Canadensis^ (Linn.)— Golden Eagle. N. to Arctic Coast.

Rare.

Genus Halinetus,
tl2. Haliaetus leucocephalus, (Linn.) — Bald Eagle. N. to Arctic Coast.
Common.

Genus Pandion.
tl3. Pandion Carolinensis, (Gmelin.)— Osprey. N. to Arctic Coast
Common.

Observed in the McKenzie River District. 143

Family Strigid^.
Genvs Bubo.
•14. Bubo Virginianus, var. subarcticus, (Swains.) — Horned Owl. N.
to Arctic circle and beyond.
Genus Otas.
♦15. Otus Wilsonianus, (Lesson.)— Long Eared Owl. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Rare.

Genus Brachyotus.
•16. Brachyotus Cassinii, (Brewer.) — Short Eared Owl. N. to Fort
Simpson. Common.

Genus Nyctale.
t*l7. Nyctale Richardsonii, (Bonap.) — Sparrow Owl. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Rather rare.

Genus Nyctea.
•18. Nyctea nivea, (Daudin.) — White Owl. N. to Fort Norman. Rare.

Genus Suinia.

t*19. Surnia ulula, (Linn.) — Hawk OwL N. to Arctic coast. Common.

Order 2 — Scansores.

Family Picid^.

Genus Picus.

•20. Picus villosus, (Linn.) — Hairy Woodpecker. N. to Fort Simpson.

Common.
•21. " pubescens, (Linn.) — Downy Woodpecker. N. to Fort Liards.
Not rare.

Genus Picoides.
•22. Picoides Arcticus, (Swains.) — Black-backed Woodpecker. N. to

Fort Simpson. Rare.
•23. " hirsutus, (Vieillot.) — Banded Woodpecker. N. to Fort

Good Hope.
•24. " dorsalis, (Baird.) — Striped Woodpecker. N. to Fort

Simpson. But one specimen of what I am disposed to
consider to be this very rare bird, has been secured. It
resembles the P. hirsutus, except that the white is mark-
ed on the back in longitudinal instead of lateral lines.
Genus Sphyrapicus.
t25. Sphyrapicus varius J (Baird.) — Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, N. to
Fort Simpson. Common.

Genus Hyldtonius.
26. Hylatomus pileatus, (Baird ?)— Black Woodcock. N. to FortLiards,
Rare.

Genus Colaptes.
127. Colaptes auratus, (Swains.)— Golden Woodpecker. N. to Peers
River. Common.

144 Ross on the Mammals, Birds, and Eggs

Order 3. — Iimessores.

Family CAPRiMULGiDiE.

Genus Chordiles.

f28. Chordiles popetue, (Vieillot.)— Night Hawk. N. to Lapierre's House.

Rather rare.

Family ALCEDiNiDiE.

Genus Ceryle.
129. Ceryle alcyon, (Boie.) — Kingfisher. N. to Peel's River. Common.

Family CoLOPTERiDiE.

(Tyranninae.)

Genus Tyrannus.

30. Tyrannus CaroUnensis, (Baird.)-King bird. N. to Fort Simpson. Rare.

GenuH Sayornis.
fSl. Sayornis fuscus, (Baird.)— Jewee. N. to Fort Simpson. Rare.

32. " saytis, (Baird.) — Say's Flycatcher. N. to Fort Simpson.

Rare.

Genus Contnpus.

33. Contopus borealis, (Baird.) — Olive-sided Flycatcher. N. to Fort Re-

solution. Rare.

Genus Umpidonax."
134. Empidonax pusillus, (Swain.) — N. to Fort Simpson. Rare.
f35. " Traillii, (Traill's Flycatcher.)— N. to Fort Resolution.

Rare.
|36. " mmmws, (Baird.) — Least Flycatcher. N. to Fort Simp-

son. Common.

Family Turdid^. (Oscines.)

(Turdinas.)

Genus Tardus.

f37. TMrdMsPaZZasu? (Cabanis.)— Hermit Thrush. N. to Fort Simpson.

Identity uncertain.
f38. " Swainsoniij (Cabanis.) — Olive-backed Thrush. N. to La-

pierre's House. Abundant.
f39. " aliciae, (Baird.)— N. to Youcon River. Only found W. of

Rocky Mountains.
140. " migratorius, (Linn.)— Robin. N. to Lapierre's House.
Abundant.

(Regulinge.)

Genus Rcgulus.

41. Regulus calendulus, (Licht.)— Ruby-crowned Wren. Fort Resolu-

tion. Rare.

Family Sylvicolid^;
(Motacillinse.)
Genus Anthus,

42. Anthus ludovicianus, (Licht.)— Tit-Lark. N. to Fort Simpson. Not

common.

Observed in the McKenzie River District, 145

(Sylvicolinae.)
Genus Mniotilta.

43. Mniotilta varia, (Vieilltot.)— Black and White Creeper. N. to Fort

Simpson. Very rare.

Germs Opornis.

44. Opornis agilisi (Connecticut Warbler.) — Fort Simpson. Identity

very doubtful.

Genus Helmintophaga,
t45. Helmintophaga peregrina, (Cabanis.)-Tenne3see Warbler. N. to Fort

Simpson.
t46. " celata, (Baird.) — Orange-crowned Warbler. N. to

Resolution. Rare.
47. " rujicapilla, (Wilson.) — Nashville Warbler. N. to

Resolution. Rare.

Genus Seiurus*
t48. Seiurits noveboracensis, (Gmelin.) — Water Thrush. N. to Lapierre's

House. Common.

Genus Dendroica.
f49. Dendroica coronata, (Linn.) — Myrtle bird. N. to Lapierre's House.

Rare.
fSO. " striata, (Forster.) — Black-poll Warbler. N. to Lapierre's

House. Common,
t51. " (Bstiva, (Gmelin.) — Yellow Warbler. N. to Lapierre's

House. Abundant.
t52. " maculosa, (Gmelin.) — Black-and- Yellow Warbler. N. to

Fort Simpson. Rather rare.
t53. " palmarum, (Gmelin.) — Yellow-red-poll Warbler. N. to

Resolution. Rare.

Genus Myiodioctes.
54. Myiodioctes pusillus, (Wilson.) — Green-Blackcap Flycatcher. N. to

Lapierre's House. Very rare.
Genus Setophaga.
155. Setophaga ruticilla, (Linn.) — Red-start. N. to Fort Good Hope.

Common.

Family Hirundinid^.

Genus Hirundo.
57. Hirundo horreroum, (Barton.) — Barn Swallow. N. to Fort Resolu-
tion. Rare.
t58. " Zwrn/roTw, (Say.)— Cliflf Swallow. N. to Rat River. Com-
mon.
59. " bicolor, (Vieillot.)— White-bellied Swallow. N. to Fort
Good Hope. Rare.

Genus Cotyle.
t60. Cotyle riparia, (Linn.)— Bank Swallow. N. to Fort Simpson.
Abundant.
Can. Nat. 10 Vol. VIL

146 Ross on the Mammals ^ Birds, arid Eggs

Family BoMBYCiLLiDiE3.

Genus Ampelis.
1*61. Ampelis garrulus, (Linn.) — Wax-wing. North to Youcon River,
Not rare. An egg of this bird has been obtained on the
Youcon, by Mr. R. Kennicott. I have been informed by
Mr. John Hope, a schoolmaster of the Church Mission-
ary Society, resident at Fort Franklin on Bear Lake,
that these birds build in numbers in that vicinity ; but
so high up the trees as to render it a difficult task
to obtain the eggs. A specimen was shot in February
at Fort Liards, which causes me to mark the species as
a winter resident.

Family Laniid^e.

Genus Collyrio.

62. Collyrio borealis, (Bon.) — Northern Shrike. N. to Fort Good Hope.

Not rare.

63. " ludovicianus ? (Linn.) — Loggerhead Shrike. Rare. Fort

Simpson. Doubtful.

(Vireoninae.)

Genus Vireo.

64. Vireo olivaceus, (Vieilltot.) — Red-eyed Flycatcher. N. to Fort

Simpson. Rare.

65. " gilvus, (Bon.) — Warbling Flycatcher. N. to Fort Simpson,

Rare.

Family Parid^.

Genus Parus.

*66. Parus septentrionalis^ (Harris,) — Chickadee. N. to Fort Simpson.
Not rare.

*6l. " atricapillus, (Linn.) — Blackcap Tit. N. to Fort Simpson.
Rare.

*68. " Hudsonicus, (Forster.) — Hudson's Bay Tit. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Not common.

Family Fringillid^.

(Cocotliraustinae.)

Genus Finicola.

*69. Finicola Canadensis, (Brisson.) — Pine Grosbeak. N. to Fort Good

Hope. Not rare.

Genus Curvirostra.
*10. Curvirostra leucoptera, (Gmelin.) — N. to Fort Good Hope.

Genus Aegiothus.
t*7l. Aegiothus Linaria, (Linn.) — Lesser Red-poll. N. to Fort Good

Hope. Abundant.
t*72. " canescens, (Gonld.) — Mealy Red-poll. N. to Lapierre's

House. Common.

Observed in the McKenzie River District. 147

Genus Plectrophayies.
(Plectrophanes.)

73. Pledrophanes nivalis^ (Meyer.) — Snow Bunting. N. to Fort Good

Hope. Abundant.

(Centroplianes.)

74. " lupponicus, (Selby.) — Long-spur. N. to Fort Simpson.

75. " pidus, (Swainson.) — Painted Bunting. N. to Fort

Simpson. Eather rare.

(Spizellinae,)
Genus Passerculus.
*76. Passerculus Savanna, (Bon.) — Swamp Sparrow. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Abundant around Slave Lake.

77. " Sandioichensis, (Baird,) — N. to Fort Simpson. Rare.

78. " Anthinusl (Qaax:6..) — Great Bear Lake. Uncertain.

Genus Zonotrichia.
179. Zonotrichia leucophrys, (Forster.) — N. to Resolution. Rare.
fSO. " Gambelii, (Nuttall.) — N. to Lapierre's House. Abun-

dant.
fSl. " albicollis, (Gmelin.) — N. to Fort Simpson. Rather

rare.

Genus Tunco.
82. Tunco Oregoneus, (Towns.) — Oregon Snow Bird. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Rare.

183. " hyenialiSj (Sclater.) — Snow Bird. N. to Fort Good Hope.

Genus Spizella.

184. Spizella Montecola, (Baird.) — Tree Sparrow. N. to Lapierre's House.

Abundant.
f85,* '* sodalis, (Wilson.) — Social Sparrow. N. to Fort Simpson.

Abundant.
t85.^ " socialis, (Wilson.) — Striped-crown variety. N. to Fort

Simpson. Common.

186. " pallida, (Bonap.) — N. to Fort Resolution. Rare.

Genus Melospiza.

187. Melospiza Lincolnii, (Baird.) — Lincoln's Finch. N. to Fort Simp-

son. Not rare.
88. Melospiza palustris, (Baird.) — Swamp Finch. N. to Fort Resolution.
Rare.

(Passerellinge.)

Genus Passerella.
189. Passerella Iliaca, (Swainson.) — Fox Sparrow. N. to Lapierre's
House. Common.

Family Icterid^.

Genus Molothrus.
90. Molothrus pecoris (Swains.) — Cow-bird. N. to Fort Simpson. Very
Rare.

148 Ross on the Mammals, Birds, and Eggs

Geffius Agelaius.
t91. Agelaius Phaniceus, (Vieill.) — Swamp Blackbird. N. to Fort Nor-
man.

92. Agelaius gubernatovj (Bon.)— Red-shouldered Blackbird. N. to

Fort Simpson. Common,

93. Agelaius tricolor, (Nutt.) — Red and -white-shouldered Blackbird.

N. to Fort Simpson, Rare.

Genus Xanthocephalus,

94. Xanthocephalus sterocephalus, (Baird.) — Yellow-headed Blackbird.

Though no specimen of this bird has been procured, I
once observed it at Fort Simpson.
(Icterinae.)
Genus Scolecophagus.

95. Scolecophagus ferrugineus, (Swains.) — Rusty Blackbird. N. to Fort

Good Hope, Common.

96. Scolecophagus cyanocephalus (Cabanis,) — ^Brewer's Blackbird. N. to

Fort Simpson. Not rare.
(QuiscaliDae.)
Genus Quiscalus.

97. Quiscalus versicolor, (rieill.) — Crow Blackbird. N. to Fort Simp*

son. Rare.

Family Corvid^.
Corvinse.
Genus Corvus,
*98. Corvws carmrorws, (Bartram.) — Rayen. N. to Arctic coast. Abun-
dant.
99. Corvus Americanus, (Aud.) — Common Crow. N. to 61** north lat.
Abundant.

(Garrulinae.)
Genus Pica.
*100. Pica Hudsonica, (Bon.) — Magpie. On west of Mountains N. to
Lewis and Pelly Rivers. Not seen in the Mackenzie val-
ley.

Genus Perisoreus.
♦101. Perisoretis Canadensis, (Bon.) — Canada Jay. N. to Lapierre's House
Abundant.

Order 4. — Rasores.
(Columbse.)
Family Columbid,®.
(Columbinae.)
Genus Ectopistes.
102. Ectojristes migrataria, (Swains.)— Wild Pigeon. N. to Fort Nor-
man. Not common.

Observed in the McKenzie River District, 149

(Gallinae.)

Family TETRAONiDiE.

Genus Tetrao.

♦103. Tetrao Bichardsonii, (Douglas) Black Partridge. N. to Fort Hal-

kett. Only in the Mountains.

t*104. Tetrao Canadensis^ (Linn.) — Spruce Partridge. N. to Arctic

coast. Abundant.

Genus Pedioecetes.
t*105. PedicBcetes phasianellus^ (Baird.) — Sharp-tailed Grouse. N. to
Fort Good Hope.

Genus Bonasa.
t*106a Bona^a umbellus, (Steph.)— Ruffed Grouse. N. to Fort Simpson.

Common.
t*1066 Bonasa umbellus^ var. umhelloides^ (Baird.) — Grey Mountain
Grouse. N. to Lapierre's House. Common.
Genus Lag opus.
*107. Lagopus albusj (Aud.)— "White Ptarmigan. N. to Arctic coast.

Common.
•108. Lagopus rupestris, (Leach.)— Ptarmigan. N. to Arctic coast.

Rather rare.
*109. Lagopus leucurusj (Swains.) — White-tailed Ptarmigan. N. to
Lapierre's House in the mountains.
Order 5. — Grallatores,

(Herodiones.)
Family Gruid^.
Genus Grus.
110. Grus jimericanus, (Ord.) — White Crane. N. toFort Simpson. Rare.
fill. Grus Canadensis^ (Temm.) — Brown Crane. N. to Arctic coast.
Common.

112. Grusfraterculus, (Cassin.) — N. to Youcon River: but only west of

the mountains.

Genus Botaurus,

113. Botaurus lentiginosuSj (Steph.) — Bittern. N. to Arctic coast. Rare

northward.

(Grallse.)

Family Charadridae.

Genus Charadrius.

114. Charadrius Virginicus, (Bork.) — Golden Plover. N. to Arcticcoast.

Abundant.

Genus Aegialltis.

115 Ae^ialitis semipalmatus, (Cab.) — Semipalmated Plover. N. to Fort

Simpson. Common.

Genus Squaterola.

116 fi'jwateroiaf/gZmYica, (Cuv.)— Black bellied Plover. N to Fort Simp-

son. Rare.

150 Ross on the Mammals, Birds, and Eggs

Family Hcematopodidae.

Genus Strepsilas.
Ill StrepsUas interpres, (iUig.) — Turnstone. N. to Big Island. Rare.

Family Recurvivostridae.

Genus Recurvirostra.

118 Recurvirostra Americana^ (Gmelin.) — American Avosit. N. to Fort
Rae. Rare.

Family Phalaropodidae.
Genus Phalaroplms.
tll9 Phalarophus hyperboreus^ (Temm.) — N. to Fort Rae. Rare.

Family Scolopacidae.

(Scolopacinae.)

Genus Gallinago.

120 Gallinago Wilsonii, (Bon.) — English Snipe. N. to Fort SimpsOQ.

Rare.

Genus Macrorhampus.
tl21 Macrorhamphus griseus, (Leach.) — Red-breasted Snipe. N. to Fort
Norman. Rather rare.

122 Macrorhamphus scolopaceus, (Lawrence.) — N. to Lapierre's House^

Rare.

Genus Tringa.

123 Tringa maculata, (Y'lQiW.) — Sack Snipe. N. to Fort Simpson, Com-

mon.

124 Tringa Wilsonii, (Nuttal.)— Least Sandpiper. N. to Fort Simpson.

Rather rare.
tl25 Tringa Bumapartii, (Schlegel.) — N. to Fort Simpson. Rare.
Genus Ccdidris.

126 Calidris arenaria, (lUiger.) — Sanderling. N. to Big Island. Rare.

Genus Ereunetes.

127 Ereunetes petrificetus, (111. )~Semipalmated Sandpiper. N. to Fort

Simpson. Rare.

Genus Micropalama.
tl28 Micropalma himantopus, (Baird.) — N. to Fort Simpson. Very rare.
(Totaninae.)
Genus Gamhetta,
129 Gamhetta melanoleuca, (Tell-tale) (Bon.) — N. to Fort Simpson.
Rare.
flSO Ganibctta Jiavipes, (Bon.)— Yellow legs. N. to Lapierre's House.
Abundant.

Genus Ryacophilus.
131 Rhyacophilus solitarius, (Bon.)-Solitary sandpiper. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Common. It is rather a misnomer to call this bird
solitary, as I haye generally observed them in large flocks.

Observed in the McKenzie River District, 151

Genus Tringoides.
1132 Tringoides macularius, (Gray.) — Spotted sand-piper. N. to Fort
Simpson. Abundant. I have never observed this spe-
cies to keep in flocks.

Genus Tryngites.

133 Tryngites rufescens, (Cabanis.) — Buff breasted sandpiper. Rare. N.

to Fort Simpson.

Genus Limosa.

134 Limosa Hudsonicaj (Swainson.)— N. to Big Island and Fort Rae.

Bare.

Genus Niimenius.

135 Numenius borealis, (Latham.) — Eskimos Curlew. N. to Fort Good

Hope. Rare.

Family Rallid^.

Rallinse.

Genus Porzana.

(Porzana.)

136 Porzana Carolina, (Yiell.) — Common Rail. N. to Big Island. Rare.

Genus Fidica.
J37 Fulica Americana, (Gmelin.)— Coot. N. to Fort Simpson. Rather
rare.

OrderQ. — Natatores.

(Anseres.)
Family Anapidae.

(Cjgninse.)
Genus Cygnus.
(Olor.)
138 Cygnus Americanus, (Sharpless.) — American Swan. N. to Arctic

Coast. Not common.
tl39 Cygnus buccinator, (Richardson.) — Trumpeter Swan. N. to Arctic
Coast. Common.

(Anserinae)

Genus Anser.

(Chen)

140. Anser hyperboreus, (Sallas.) — Snow Goose. N. to Arctic Coast.

Abundant.

141. Anser albatus, (Cassin,) — North to Fort Resolution. Although no

specimen of this Goose is among our collections, I am
confident that I have shot it on Slave Lake.
*142 Anser Rossii, (Baird).— Ross's Wavy. N. to Fort Resolution.
Rather common. There can be little doubt of the exis-
tence of these three species of Snow Geese, (exclusive of
the Blue Wavy of Hudson's Bay) as the Slave Lake In-
dians have a different name for each kind. The first
which arrives is the middle-sized species which I believe

1^ Ross on the Mammals ^ Birds, and Eggs

to be the ^. albatus ; next comes the smallest sort, the
^. Rossii ; and lastly the ji. Hyperboreus, which arrives
when the trees are in leaf, and is called the yellow wavy
by the Indians,

(Anser.)

143 Jnser Gambelii, (Hartlaub).— White-fronted Goose. N. to Arctic
Coast. Common.

Genus Bemicia,

tl44 Bernicla Canadensis, (Boie). — Canada Goose. N. to Arctic Coast.
Common.

tl45 Bernicla Hutchinsii, (Bonap). — Hutchin's Goose. N. to Arctic
Coast. Rather common.

*146 Bernicla Barnstonii ? (Ross). — This Bird was shot at Fort Simpson.
It is of very large size, with the breast of a bright fawn
color. The delta of feathers running up into the lower
mandible, is white, instead of black as in JB. Canadensis,
The tail is of sixteen feathers. The Indians consider it a
species distinct from the Canada Goose. It seldom flies
in parties of more than five or six. I cannot however
positively state it to be a new species, until the Berniclae
of North America are properly worked up, as our know-
ledge of them is at present very imperfect.

14*7 Bemicia Brenta, (Stephens). — Brant. N. to Youcon River. From
information. This may probably be the B. nigricans^
(Cassin), as the Youcon has in all likelihood a Pacific
Fauna.

(Anatinoe.)

Genus Anas.

f 148 jinas boschas, (Linn). — Mallard. N. to Arctic Coast. Abundant.

Genus Dajila.

tl49 Dafila acuta, (Senyns). — Pin-tail. JN^. to Lapierre's House. Com-
mon.

Genus Nettion.
tl50 Nettion Carolinensis, (Baird). — Green-winged Teal. N. to Peels
River. Abundant.

Genus Querquedula.
tl51 Querquedula discora, (Steph).— Blue-winged Teal. N. to Fort
Resolution. Rare.

Genus Spatula.
tl52 Spatula clypeata, (Boie).— Shoveller. N. to Fort Good Hope. Not
common.

Genus Moreca.
tl53 Moreca Americana, (Stephens). — American Widgeon. N. to Peels
River. Common.

Observed in the McKenzie River District, 153

(Fuligulinae).

Genus Fulix,
154. Fulix marila, (Baird).— Big-black-head. N. to Fort Resolution.

Rather rare.
tl55. J^mZix a^nw, (Baird).— Little-black-head. N. to Peels River. Abun-
dant,
156. Fulix collaris, (Baird). — Ring-necked duck. N. to Fort Simpson.
Rare.

Genus Aythya.
fl57. Aythya vallisneria, (Bon). — Canvass Back. N. to Slave Lake.
Common.

Genus Biicephala.
tl58. Bucephala albeola, (Baird). — Spirit duck. N. to Arctic Coast. Abun-
dant.
1159. Bucephala americana, (Baird). — Golden-eye. N. to Arctic Coast.
Not rare.

Genus Histrionicus.

160. HistriorAcus torquatus, (Bon). — Harlequin duck. N. to Arctic Coast.

Rare.

Genus Harelda.

161. Harelda glacialis, (Leach). — South-southerly. N. to Arctic Coast.

Abundant.

Genus Malanetta.
tl62. Malanetta velvetina, (Baird). — Velvet duck. N. to Arctic Coast.
Not rare.

Genus Pelionetta.

163. Pelionetta perspicillata, (Kaup). — Surf duck. N. to Seels River.

Abundant.

Genus Somateria.

164. Somateria V. nigra, (Gray). — Slave Lake Eider. A male specimen

of this very rare bird was shot by me at Fort Resolution
in 1858, and a female was obtained by Mr. Alex, McKen-
zie in 1861 at the same place. It is exceedingly rare,
having never been seen anywhere else in this District.

(Erismaturinae.)

Genus Erismatura.
IQ5. Ervimatur a rubida, (Bon). — Ruddy duck. N. to Slave Lake. Rare

(Merginae.)

Genus Mergus.

166. Mergus serrator, (Linn). — Red-breasted Merganser. N. to Peels

River. Common,

Genus Lophodytes.

167. Lophodytes cucullatus, (Reich). — Hooded Merganser. N. to Slave.

Lake. Rare.

154 Ross on the Mammals, Birds, and Eggs

(Gaviae).
Family Phalacrocoracid^.

Genus Graculus.

168. Graculus dilophus, (Gray). — Double-crested Cormorant. Slave

Lake. Rare.

Family Pelecanid^.
Genus Pelecanus.
(Cyrtopelicanus.)

169. Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, (Gmelin) (American Pelican). — N. to

Big Island. Common

Family Larid^.
(LestridinaB.)

Genus Stercorarius.
IVO. Stercorarius pomarinus, (Temm). — Pomarine skua. Slave Lake.

Very rare.
171. Stercorarius parasiticus, (Temm). — Arctic skua. N. to Fort Simp-
son. Rare.
tl72. Stercorarius parasiticus, var. Richardsonii. — Slave Lake. Rare.

173. Stercorarius catarractes, (Temm.) — Slave Lake. Very rare.

174. Stercorarius cejyp/iMs, (Brunn).-Buflfon's skua. N. to Lapierres & Co.

Rare.

(Larinas.)

Genus Larus.
tl75. Larus glaucescens, (Licht). — Glaucus-winged Gull. Slave Lake.

Abundant. '
tl76. Larus argentatus, (Briinn). — Herring Gull. N. to Arctic Coast.

, Abundant.

tl77. Larus Calif ornicus, (Lawrence). — California Gull. Slave Lake.
Abundant.

Genus Chroicocephalus.

178. Chroicocephalus Philadelphia^ (Lawrence). — N. to Fort Simpson.

Not rare.

Genus Rissa.

179. Rissa septentrionalis, (Lawrence). — Slave Lake. Common.

(Sterninae.)

Genus Sterna.
tl80. Sterna Caspia, (Pallas). — Caspian Tern. Slave Lake. Rare.
flSl. Sterna Wilsonii, (Bon). — Wilson's Tern. Slave Lake and Bear

Lake. Rather rare.
tl82. Sterna macroura, (Naum). — Arctic Tern. N. to Bear Lake. Abun-
dant.

Genus Hydrochelidon.
183. Hydrochelidon plumbea, (Wils). — Short-tailed Tern. Slave Lake
Rare. Numerous other species of the sub-family Lari

I

Observed in the McKenzie River District. 155

nae doubtless exist in this District, which "will appear

by degrees, as the collections increase.

Family Colymbid^.

(Colymbinae).

Genus Colymhus.

184. Colymhus torquatus, (Briinnich). — Loon. N. to Arctic Coast. Abun-

dant.

185. Colympus Adamsi. — Abundant on Great Slave Lake.

tl86. Colympus arcticus var. Pacijicus, (Linn). — N. to Arctic Coast.
Rather rare.
18Y. Colymhus septentrionalis, (Linn). — Red-throated Diver. N. to Arc-
tic Coast. Abundant.

(Podicipinae).

Genus Podiceps.

tl88. Podiceps griseigena, (Grey). — Red-necked Grebe. — to Peel's River.

Common.
tl89. Podiceps cornutus, (Latham). — Horned Grebe. N. to Lapierres &
Co. Common.
190. Podiceps auritus, (Lath). — Eared Grebe. Slave Lake. Rare.
Genus Podilymhus.
tl91. Podilymhus podiceps, (Lawrence). — Slave Lake. Not common.

(Additional.)
192. Numenius Hudsonicus, (Latham). — Hudsonian Curlew. Slave Lake.

Rare.
The Northern range of the birds means the Northernmost Post at which
a specimen has been obtained. I have on hand about 300 specimens, as
yet unexamined, among which a few additional species will doubtless be
found.

The following other collections have been made : —
Fish. At Fort Resolution, Big Island, Simpson and Bear Lakes, and
Fort Liards.

Insects. At Resolution, Simpson, Youcon, Peel's River and Fort Good
Hope.

Geological specimens. Fossils, &c., at the Clear TVater, Elk, MacKen-
zie, Anderson, and Rat Rivers, and Slave Lake.
Ethnological specimens. In the District generally.

ARTICLE XIY .^-JSfotes on Chemical Subjects. By Prof. S. P.
Boll) ins.
Much attention has been directed within the past ten years to
the economical value of silica as a preservative of metals and
stone, and as a water-proof, and to some extent fire-proof coating
for wood, as well as an important ingredient in the manufacture
of artificial stone. Heretofore, however, it has been commonly
applied in the form of a solution of the soluble silicate of potash

156 Notes on the Chemical Subjects.

and soda — the so-called water-glass — the alkali, to which the so-
lubility was due, being removed either by the slow action of the
weather, or by chemical agents specially employed for the pur-
pose. Thus superfluous and even injurious compounds were ne-
cessarily introduced, which, when removed by solution or eflflor-
escence, left the preservative coating porous and permeable. It
is now known, however, that pure silica may in certain cases be
dissolved in pure water; thus, if sulphide of silicium be dissolved
in water sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, and silica remains
perfectly dissolved and in large amount ; or if pure water be
separated by a septum of parchment paper from a solution of
silicate of soda supersaturated with hydrochloric acid, after a few
days the hydrochloric acid and chloride of sodium passing through
the septum will leave an aqueous solution of silica on the other
side of the diaphragm. It is obvious that such a solution, which
may be prepared in many other ways than those here described,
will possess many advantages over a solution of water-glass, as a
preservative whether of wood or of stone.

As aluminum from its malleability, ductility, tenacity, remark-
able lightness, beautiful colour and impassivity to the action of
those ever present chemical agents which so rapidly tarnish
silver and the commoner metals, promises to become of great
economic value, it is gratifying to find that the cost of its produc-
tion is rapidly diminishing, so that its price has descended from
£60 per lb. to 60s., at which price it is now furnished by the
Aluminum Works at Newcastle.

Wood publishes in the Journal of the Franklin Institute the
following formula for a fusible metal which becomes perfectly
liquid at 180°F. ; cadmium 1 part, lead 6 parts, bismuth 7 parts.
This alloy has a bright metallic colour, is flexible in thin plates^
is imperfectly malleable, and about as hard as coarse solder.

ARTICLE XV.— Oil the date of the Report on the Geology of
Wisconsin^ noticed in this Journal, Vol. VI. p. 465.
In the number of this Journal for December last, there is a
notice of one sheet of Prof. Hall's recent Report on the Geology
of Wisconsin. On the 12th of March, 1862, two copies of the
same report were received at the office of the Geological Survey
of Canada, by mail. Both of these are dated January 1, 1861.
On one of the copies there are indorsed with pen and ink the

On date of Report on Geology of Wisconsin, 157

words, "Published Nov., 1861." I do not recognize the hand-
writing, but it is evident that one of the dates must be incorrect,
and I believe both are. I have some evidence that the report was
not published until about the middle of December, 1861, eleven
months after the date printed on the cover, and I am obliged to
call attention to it for the following reasons :

On the 21st of November last, I pubhshed a paper containing
descriptions of a number of new species of fossils, principally from
the Potsdam sandstone and other associated formations. On the
22nd I sent a copy to I'rof. Hall by mail. In the January No.
of SilHman's Journal, he alludes to it in his letter on the Pots-
dam sandstone, and Hudson River rocks of Vermont. As a gen-
eral rule, articles intended for that Journal must be in the hands
of the pubHshers about one month previously to the date of pub-
lication. It seems quite certain, therefore, that my paper was in
Prof. Hall's possession in the latter part of November, most pro-
bably about the 24th of the month. In my paper I described a
new genus of fossil Brachiopoda under the name of Obolella,
One of the species to which I referred as exhibiting the characters
of the genus, occurs in the Potsdam sandstone of Wisconsin,
Prof. Hall has described this species on p. 24 of his report, under
the name of Lingula polita, and has also pointed out that its
characters are not the same as those of either Obelus or Lin-
gula. His remarks are in substance the same as mine except
that he notices an " obtuse dental process on each side of the
rostral cavity," which is not visible in any of our specimens. On
comparing the two papers any person would be justified in sup-
posing that I had taken the idea of the genus Obolella from Prof.
Hall. Thus by antedating his report eleven months, he lays me
open to the charge of plagiarism, which is certainly very unfair.
I never saw his report, nor had any knowledge of its con-
tents, nor of its existence, until I saw the notice of it in this
Journal in the beginning of February, 1862, at which time the
December number was issued, — more than two months after my
paper was distributed, and fourteen months after the time he has
given the public to understand that his was published. I am com-
pelled, therefore, in self-defence, to correct his erroneous date.

Some of my scientific friends have advised me to take no notice
of this and similar matters. They, however, are engaged in dif-
ferent fields of research from that occupied by Prof. Hall and
myself, and as they cannot come into collision with him, thev can

158 Reviews and Notices oj Booh,

look upon these affairs with the most stoical composure. Were
they in my position, they would soon feel their magnanimity very
sensibly diminished, and rapidly oozing away from them. For
the last four years I have been subjected to great annoyance in
consequence of Prof. Hall's extraordinary practice of antedating
his publications, and I have a perfect right, and shall not hesitate
on every occasion, to resist in the most public manner.

E. Billings.
Montreal April 15, 1862.

REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS.

A Manual of the Sub-Kingdom Ccelenterata. By Joseph Reay
Greene, B.A., Professor of Natural History in the Queen's
College, Cork. London, 1861. Longman & Co. 12 mo,
pp. 271.
*"The author of this work is already favourably known by his
" Manual of Protozoa," with a general introduction on the Prin-
ciples of Zoology — which is an excellent text-book for students.
The present volume is an abiidgraent of a larger work, which the
author hopes ere long to publish. The Ccelenterata include such
animals as the Hydra, Sertularia, Medusa, Actinia, and Zoophyte.
They are all furnished with an alimentary canal, freely communi-
catino- with the general or somatic cavity. The substance of the
body consists essentially of two separate layers; an outer, or ec-
toderm, and an inner, or endoderm. These two membranes, but
especially the former, are in general provided with ciliae. In the
integument of those organisms we constantly meet with peculiar
thread-cells, which, when they come into contact with the human
skin, frequently produce disagreeable stinging sensations. The
sub-kingdom is divided into two orders : — 1. Hydrozoa^ixi which
the wall of the digestive sac is not separated from that of the so-
matic cavity, and the reproductive organs are external ; 2. Acti-
nozoa, in which the wall of the digestive sac is separated from
that of the somatic cavity by an intervening space, subdivided in-
to chambers by a series of vertical partitions, iu the faces of which
the reproductive organs are developed. The author gives the
morphology, physiology, classification, and distribution as regards
space and time, of the animals included in these two orders.
The facts are stated in a clear and interesting manner, and are

Reviews and Notices of Booh. 159

illustrated by numerous excellent woodcuts. The author has
given the most recent observations in regard to the anatomy and
physiology of the animals, and has produced a manual of great
value to the student of zoology, to whom these lower types of
animals must ever present attractive subjects for observation.
Physiology is indebted in no small degree for its progress to the
labours of naturalists who have made researches into the functions
of these animals, and we do not know any department of natural
history more deserving of attention. Much has been done of late
years in the illustration of the various divisions of the Ccelenterata
by Forbes, Allman, Huxley, Hincks, Busk, Strethill, Wright,
Gosse, Agassiz, Sars, Siebold, Steenstrup, Miiller, Milne-Edwards,
Gegenbaur, Leuckart, and others. We have much pleasure in
recommending Mr. Greene's work as an excellent epitome of all
that has been done by these authors. There is a valuable biblio-
graphy appended, along with a series of questions which are well
calculated to test the student in regard to his knowledge of the
subject." — Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

Scripture and Science not at variance; with RemarTcs on the
Historical Character^ Plenary Inspiration, and Siirpassing
Importance of the Earlier Chapters of Genesis. By John
H. Pratt, M.A., Archdeacon of Calcutta. 4th Edition
London: Thomas Uatchard. 1861. 8vo, pp. 158.

" It has often been said that the discoveries of science are at
variance with the statements of Scripture, and it is sometimes diffi-
cult for those who believe in the inspiration of the sacred volume
to repel the charge made against it by sceptical men of science.
The object of Archdeacon Pratt's work is to present such persons
with a reply in a concise and portable form. It points out the
difficulties to be met with and the objections to be removed, and
tends to strengthen the faith of those who believe the Word of
God. The author gives instances in which Scripture and science
were supposed to be antagonistic, but which were cleared up by
subsequent discoveries. He then enters on an examination of the
earlier part of the Book of Genesis, and concludes that no new
discoveries, however startling they may appear at first, need dis-
turb our belief in the plenary inspiration of the sacred volume, or
damp our ardour in the pursuit of science. The vexed questions
in regard to the six days of creation, the origin of man and of

160 Reviews and Notices of Booh.

species, of death before Adam, the nature of the Deluge, the ori-
gin of languages, are ably handled. Many apparent discrepan-
cies are explained, and several false theories are exposed. The
author writes as a man of science, and at the same time a believer
in the Bible ; and he supports his views by able and judicious
arguments. " The hasti/ and immature deductions of science
may sometimes stand in opposition to Scripture ; but their settled
results, in which the body of philosophers agree, often confirm
and illustrate the statements of the inspired Volume. Let us
then hold firm oui' grasp upon this truth, that the Scriptures are
the infallible Word of God, true in every statement they contain,
although the interpretation sometimes demands more knowledge
than we at present possess ; but let us at the same time remem-
ber, that there is no ground whatever for ceasing to pursue
science, in all its branches, with an ardent and fearless mind.
God's Word and Works never have contradicted each other, and
never can do so. The progress of science in inevitable, and it is
the glory of man's intellectual endowments. It is the setting
forth of the greatness and wisdom of the Creator in His works.
Let us therefore push on investigations to the utmost with untir-
ing energy. We have nothing to fear. The greatest perplexities
may at any time surround us ; but both reason and experience
have armed us with arguments which assure us that all will be
right. Whatever happens, let our persuasion always be avowed,
that Scripture cannot err. Let us be content rather to remain
puzzled, than to abandon, or even question, a truth which stands
upon so immovable a basis." — Edinburgh New PhilosopJiical
Journal,

Erratum. — On Page 8*7 last line, for " Plectrophanes nivalis'
read *^ Fringilla nivalis^ Wilson,"

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER, ST. MARTINS, ISLE JESUS, CANADA EAST, (NINE MILES WEST Of MONTREAL,) FOR THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY, 1861.

Latitude, 45 degree3 32 minutes Nortli. Longitude, 73 degrees 36 minutes West. Height above tlie level of the Sea, U8 feet.

BY CHARLES SMALLWOOD, M.D., LL.D.

21 30, 174 30, ]

Tcuaioii of Aqucoub

Humidity of tlie

S, bv E.
N. E. liy I

S. 8. E.
W. by K.

S, S,E,
N, E, l)v E

s. s. w.

N. by W.
N. It. by I
W. by Sr.

8. W.
N.B.byE
W. by N.
N. E. by E
W. by N.

,byE.

r. s. w.

Ilii

^^ATnEB, CLOUDS, EEMARK3, &C. &C.

[A cloudy sky is represented by 10. a cloudless o

Cirr. Cum,
C. C, Str.

Clear.

Cu. Str.

Cu. Str. '
C. C. Str
Cu, Str.
Clear.
Cu. Cir.

Clew, Imp, Lunar H»lo,

C. C. Sir. 8. Lunar Coroni.

Clear. Zodiacal Light Bright.

Clear, iu, Bo'r. J: Zod. Lt. Brig
Cu. Sir. 10.
Clear,
Cu.Slr. 10.

Clear. Zodiacal Light Bright.

Snow.

Cu. Str. 10.

REPORT FOR THE MONTH OF MARCH, 1862.

Tumporaturo of the

Uircctiou of "Wi;

W.by S.
W. by S.

S. by li.
S.£
W. by S.
W. 8. W.
N. E. by B.
N.B.byE,

r. E. by I
V.S.W.

2.5 [ iuapp;' ■ir8iip.|

C. Str.
Cu. Str.

Gleal-.
Cu. Str.
Clear.

C. Cum, 4. Lunar Halo.

"tr. 2.

irstr, 10.
JO.

Slight Snow.

Str 1.

Clear. Zodiacsl light. Au. Borealis.

Clear. Zodiacal Light Bright.

EEMARKS FOE FEBRUARY, 1861.

rudiatiou,— 20 o

i.rHst \v liiii^ ihiy the ,jth day. mean mil

Zodiacal Light bright and welldefiucd,
3 Lunar Haloes aud 1 Corona seen.
1 Solar Halo.

The Eleclrical state of thi
lerate intcusily.
Crows Ist seen on tlie 10th c

Atmosphere has indicated uio-

rUighest, the 13th day, 30,279 inch
i!.,.„„.,.4„,. ILowest, the «h da,v, 20,313

'>^'°™'-''' )Monthly Moan. 29.85S i ■

Olontlily Range, 8,061 '

(Highest, the 27tli day, 52 = o.
Ti.n....„«,.ni«.. JLowest, the 3rd day,— 4=1.
incimomcici. Sjio„ti,iy jican, 29»20.

CMontldy Bange, 60 °1,
Greatest intensity of the Sun's rays. 73 = 1 .
Lowest point of Terrestrial radiation,— 5 ° 7.
Mean or humidity. -793.
Rain fell on 4 days, amounting to 0.021 inches ; it v

Most prevalent ivind, N, E, by E.
Least prevalent vfind, E.
Most windy day, the 16th day ; mean m
Least windy day, the 20th day ; Calm.
Aurora Borealis visible on 2 nights.
Solar Halo visible 1 day.
Lunar H.ilu visible 1 night.
Zodiacal light frequently very bright.

the Atmosphere h.is indicated feeble

CANADIAN

MTUEALIST AND GEOLOGIST.

Vol. VII. JUNE, 1862. No. 3.

ARTICLE XVI. — On the Primitive Formations in Norway and
in Canada^ and their Mineral Wealth. By Thomas
Macfarlane.

( Continued from page 1 2 7. — Conclusion.)
II. The Primitive Slate Formation.
B : The Schistose Group.
The second or schistose division of the Primitive Slate Forma-
tion in Norway, may be said to exist, with certainty, in two dis-
tinct areas, the one to the northeast and southeast of VestQord, in
the Nordlands, and the other to the northeast, west, southeast, and
south of Trondhjem. Keilhau describes the former of these re-
gions as " The Mica Schist districts of Tromsen and Senjen." The
latter region he includes in what he entitles " The Norwegian
portion of the central transition territory of the Scandinavian
Peninsula," because it appears, through transitions, to stand in
intimate connection with the fossiliferous Silurian strata, which
are developed around the northern end of Mjosen Lake. Be-
lieving however, with Naumann, that although the division line
between the two formations, may sometimes become very indis-
tinct, nevertheless, "on careful examination its existence will be
found in most cases, capable of demonstration," I have assumed,
with him, that the strata of the last mentioned region belongs
to the Schistose Group of the Primitive Slate Formation.

The rocks of which they are composed are given in the fol-
lowing list, in the order of the frequency of their occurrence.
Can. Nat. 11 Vol. VII

162 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

1. Mica schist, " a slaty crystalline mixture of mica and
quartz,"* occurring most frequently and characteristic in the dis-
tricts of Tromsen and Senjen. It is, however, often found of a
more equivocal character, and is then called micaceous schist. It
presents numerous transitions into the other schistose rocks of the
group. Thus, gradually becoming fine-grained, it passes into clay
slate, micaceous clay slate, or argillaceous mica schist, and by the
disappearance of the mica, through quartzose mica schist, into
quartz slate. Similarly, when chlorite and talc occur in it, it often
becomes a chloritic or talcose mica schist; the former of these being
the most frequent.

2. Clay slate, " an impalpable (indistinctly mixed,) distinctly fo-
liated, soft rock ; generally of a greyish, greenish, or bluish col-
or,"! appears to be, next to mica schist, the most frequently occur-
ring rock. It is however, more developed in the districts around
Trondhjem, and is of a more variable character than even the
mica schist. Besides the many varieties that may be included
under the general term of argillaceous slate, which is frequently
applied to these rocks, there occurs a clay slate, described as be-
ing both micaceous and chloritic, (Chloritischer Thonglimmer-
schiefer) ; from which it appears that, even mechanically, the same
substances are distinguishable in some clay slates, which Sauvage
found by chemical analysis to be present in the slates of the Ar-
dennes ; viz., a chloritic mineral which was decomposed by hy-
drochloric acid, with a micaceous mineral decomposable by
sulphuric acid, and quartz.];

8. Chlorite schist, " a soft schistose, mostly greenish colored
rock, consisting principally of chlorite. Quartz or feldspar, or
both together, are however frequently mixed with the chlorite."||
It is often found in its characteristic form, but is also frequently
described merely as chloritic schist, and occurs principally in the
districts around Trondhjem.

4. Limestone comes next in frequency. It is developed especially
in the districts of Tromsen and Senjen, where its texture varies
from granular to impalpable, and its colour from white to dark
grey. The limestone of the districts around Trondhjem, is mostly
yellowish-white, and of an impalpable, sometimes slaty structure.

♦ Lehrbuch der Geogaosie II, 281.

t Gotta : Gesteinslehre, p. 140. j Idem, p. 147.

i Ann : des Mines VII, 441.

II Gotta : Gesteinlehre, p. 145.

in Norway and in Canada, 163

5. Quartz slate and Quartzite, appear as transitions from mica
schist, in the manner above referred to.

6. Gneiss, more or less characteristic, occurs in the group, es-
pecially towards the junction with the Primitive Gneiss Forma-
tion.

7. Hornblende schist, occurs in the Trondhjem region, and
also in more northern districts. In both, it is connected with, and
forms transitions into diorite.

8. Diorite and other Greenstones. Diorite is " a crystalline,
granular mixture of hornblende and albite, sometimes also slaty
or porphyritic."* Most of the greenstones in this group
seem to be diorites. They are, however, often of very variable
characters, and by the substitution of diallage for hornblende,
graduate into a species of diabase.

9. Granite and Syenite, are also eruptive rocks occurring in
the group, sometimes intimately associated with the diorites.
Hornhlendic granite, a connecting link between granite and syen-
ite, and granulite are also mentioned.

10. Serpentine sometimes occurs in considerable masses. It
is confined to the schistose districts south of Trondhjem, and con-
sists of the common dark-coloured variety, differing altogether
from the light coloured serpentines of the Primitive Gneiss For-
mation. Chromic iron ore invariably accompanies it.

11. Euphotide; a rock thus named is described by Keilhau,
as containing large grained diallage or hypersthene. This is
however a feldspathic rock, and by reference in a note in a for-
mer portion of this paper, p. 17, it will be seen that it is to be
regarded as a kind of diabase, and distinct from the true eupho-
tides of the Alps.

12. Talc schist.

13. Steatite or Soapstone. This, together with the rocks yet
to be enumerated, is of comparatively rare occurrence.

14. Dolomite.

15. Conglomerates and breccias, somewhat resembling in char-
acter those already described in the quarztose division of the
schistose formation.

The rocks above enumerated form, as already mentioned, two
distinct geographical regions, which differ also in petrographical
characters. The first is the one already mentioned, of Tromsen

* Cotta : Gesteinlehre, p. 57.

164 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

and Senjen, where the preponderating rock is mica schist ; with
which limestone, more or less granular, is very generally inter-
stratified. Besides these, more or less characteristic gneiss, horn-
blende, chlorite, and talc schist occur as subordinate constituents.
Well-defined clay slate is of comparatively rare occurrence, aj-
though the mica schist often assumes an argillaceous character.

The second region is that spread out to a considerable distance,
in the directions before mentioned, around Trondhjem. In this also
the mica schist may be termed the preponderating rock, but the
jnterstratified limestone is less frequent. Moreover clay slate and
chloritic schist are of far greater frequency than in the first named
district, as is also serpentine ; which latter rock may be said to be
characteristic of the second district, especially of that part of it
which constitutes the Dovrefjeld Mountains. The serpentine
masses seem to be irregularly in terst ratified with the slates, and
sometimes to graduate into them. The greenstones and granites,
besides occurring in distinct beds, often form irregular masses and
regular veins, intersecting the schistose members of the group.
Here, as in the two groups of rocks already described in this
paper, these crystalline rocks, as they approach their limits, gra-
dually assume a schistose structure. Not only does " the green-
stone, in this way, change into hornblende slate or greenstone
slate, and the granite become gneissoid, but the greenstone is
found even to graduate into mica schist and clay slate. The more
purely granular the greenstones are, the more does the form of
the deposit deviate from that of a layer or bed.

Various subdivisions or zones have been distinguished in this
group, which greatly difi"er in their general strike. The principal
zone of the Dovre^eld Mountains, seems to run E.N.E., which is
also about the direction of the Dovre^eld range. The dip
varies much, but seems to be, on an average, about 45'^. To judge
from the direction of the dips given on the geological map, vari-
ous folds occur in the strata, from their junction with the primi-
tive gneiss, to where they graduate into fossiliferous beds.

In the country south of Trondhjem, the mountain masses of
Dovrefjeld and Fillefjeld, consist principally of the micaceous, ar-
gillaceous, and chloritic schists, already referred to. They con-
stitute ns it were, the pedestal for the higher peaks of these
ranges, such as the Jotunfjeld. These peaks are generally of
igneous rocks. The Faastenen are, however, composed of serpen-
tine, and Snehsetten, of a peculiar sort of gneiss.

in Norway and in Canada, 165

The most important mines of the district south of Trondhjem,
are the copper mines of Roraas and its neighborhood, the chrome
mines on the Dovrefjeld, and the nickel mines of Espedal.

The rocks around Roraas consist of micaceous slates, partly
chloritic, and partly argillaceous. They graduate into glossy clay
slates, and are sometimes described simply as green slates. These
frequently assume the character of fahlbands, being impregnated
with pyritous minerals, and weathering red. The deposits of
Roraas, which have been worked since 1744, seem to partake of
this nature. They form layers in the slates, varying from one to
fourteen feet in thickness ; the whole of which, however, by no
means consists of cupreous minerals, but usually of many small
pyritous beds, lying side by side ; these being again divided into
smaller ones, separated from each other by scales of chlorite
schist. The preponderating ores are copper pyrites, and iron
pyrites, which are sometimes mixed with magnetic pyrites and
zinc blende ; while chlorite, brown mica, quartz, garnet, actino-
lite, and asbestos, also accompany the metallic sulphurets. The
ores, as they are delivered to the smelting houses at Roraas and
Foldal, average only five per cent., and frequently are as low as
three per cent. They are roasted in heaps, and then smelted to reg-
ulus in shaft furnaces ; little or no flux being required. The result-
ing regulus is roasted repeatedly upon hearths, (stadeln) and again
smelted, when black copper is obtained, which is refined on the
small gahr hearth. The copper is principally sold for home con-
sumption, but part is also sent to the Hamburg market, where it
is known as " Drontheimer" copper.

The chromic iron mines of Roraas in Sundal, and in Lessoe,
have been, and still are wrought with very considerable success.
They all occur in serpentine, and in one year as many as 100 have
been worked. Some of these are large and regular deposits, and
others are of less extent. The most important of them are situ-
ated in the districts to the east of Roraas, Rohararaerne, and Fer-
agsfjeldene, and are owned and worked by the proprietors of the
chromate of potash manufactory at Leren. Three different sorts
of ore are produced at the mine, : No. 1, the best, which is
exported to England, although its content in chromic oxide is
much beneath what is usually contained in the Baltimore ore;
No. 2, an inferior sort, which is worked up into bichromate of
potash at Leren ; No. 3 is a still poorer quality, which is stamped
and washed, the products being also used in the manufacture of

166 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

bichromate. At the manufactory, the ore in fine powder is simply
Ignited in a reverberatory furnace, with about 30 per cent, of cal-
cined potash, and little or no saltpetre. The resulting mixture-
yields, on lixiviation with water, a solution of neutral chrom ate of
potash, which separates as a granular salt on evaporation. It is
redissolved, and the solution is treated with a certain quantity
of sulphuric acid, when crystallized bichromate of potash is ob-
tained. The sulphuric acid is manufactured in the same establish-
ijient. One hundred parts of ore yield about thirty-seven of bi-
chromate, so that the ore used must contain only about twenty
per cent, of chromic oxide.

The nickel mines of Espedal, which are now abandoned, fur-
nished an ore much of the same character as those of Ertelien in
Ringerike, described in the first part of this paper. The mode of
treatment was also similar.

The rocks of the two areas just described, ofi'er, as we have
seen, very considerable lithological difi'erences. Those of the
northern region do not appear to present any striking resem-
blances with the Canadian rocks, but the region about Trondhjem
strongly resembles that of the Eastern Townships of Canada, and
garees with it in the very points in which it differs from the mica
schist region of Tromsen and Senjen. Among these are the pre-
dominance of clay slates, the presence of serpentines, with chro-
mic iron, and the occurrence of ores of copper disseminated in
the schists. These rocks of Eastern Canada have been traced
from the line of the state of Vermont, for 140 miles north-east-
ward to the Chaudiere River, and thence, at intervals, as far as
Gaspe. As described in the Reports of the Geological Survey,
they consist in great part of mica schists, passing into a gneiss,
sometimes granitoid, on the one hand, and into clay slates on the'
other. Roofing slates are abundant in this series, and beds of
steatite and chlorite slate are not uncommon. Quartzites, some-
times conglomerate, are met with, and limestones, which are very
often magnesian, and weather of a reddish or brownish color
from the presence of iron or manganese. They are sometimes re-
placed by carbonate of magnesia. Beds of serpentine are an
important feature in this series ; they are often mingled with lime-
stone, dolomite or magnesite, and always impregnated with
chrome and nickel. These serpentines are sometimes associated
with diallage and with feldspathic rocks, which constitute varieties
of diorite and diabase. These same rocks are traced southwards.

in Norway and in Canada. L67

in the Green Mountains, through a large part of the United States^
All of them find representatives in the Norwegian group around
Trondhjem, and in the Dovre^eld,

This resemblance is still further traced in the metalliferous
deposits of the two regions. In the Eastern Townships of Can-
ada, copper sometimes occurs in the native state, in clay slate, but
much more frequently in the form of yellow and variegated sul-
phurets, or of copper glance, disseminated in micaceous or chloritic
slates, or in limestone. These deposits are of the nature of fahl-
bands. Those of Sutton and Ascott, especially the latter, have a.
strong resemblance to that of Roraas. The copper ores of this re-
gion are generally subordinate to the stratification. The short,
and irregular veins of quartz and bitter-spar, which traverse these
copper-bearing strata, sometimes however carry rich ores of cop-
per, occasionally with gold.

Iron schists, which consist of scaly peroxyd of iron, intermin-
gled with various proportions of quartz and chlorite, constitute
important beds of iron ore in some parts of this series, as in the
townships of Brome and Sutton, where they were formerly wrought
to a small extent. These schists resemble the itabirite of Brazil.

Chromic iron accompanies the serpentine in Canada, as in Nor-
way. The deposits of this ore occurring in the townships of
South Ham, Bolton, and Melbourne, greatly exceed those of Nor-
way in richness and extent. The deposit in the first named
township has been worked, producing an ore containing forty-
three per cent of chromic oxide.

As far as regards the developement of the mineral resources of
the group, Norway is in advance of Canada. Not only has the
mining of copper and chrome ores been long established, but the
manufacture of the valuable products obtainable from these, has
been long and profitably pursued. The mines of Roraas are be-
ginning to sufi"er from the scarcity of fuel at the great height, (2080
feet above the sea,) and the chrome mining and manufacturing
has had to contend with expensive cartage, and often with high
prices for potash, which is to a great extent imported from Russia.
In Canada, around the mines of the Eastern Townships, the settler
destroys acres of timber, the softer sorts of which he might
burn to charcoal ; and manufactures tons of potash, which the
chrome miner might buy, and use to manufacture his ore into
chromate of potash, at a rate alike profitable to producer and con-
sumer. I am not aware of any district where greater advantages

168 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

exist. May they soon be appreciated, and taken advantage of,
as they deserve.

These crystalline rocks in the Eastern Townships are re-
garded by the Geological Survey of Canada, as a meta-
morphosed portion of the Quebec group, which belongs to the
inferior part of the Lower Silurian series. This view of their age
coincides somewhat with that of Keilhau, relative to the similar
formation around Trondhjem, which according to him " appears,
through transitions, to stand in intimate connection with the
fossiliferous Silurian strata."

In the foregoing, I have endeavoured to compare in their pe-
trographical and economic relations, the three groups of rocks
mentioned at the commencement of this paper. It was not
originally my intention to pursue the subject farther than this ;
but seeing that the comparison which I have endeavoured to in-
stitute would be incomplete without some reference to the mutual
geological relations of these groups in Norway, I oflfer the follow-
ing remarks before concluding.

The oldest of these groups is the Primitive Gneiss formation.
This at least was the opinion of the older geologists, such as Nau-
mann, Keilhau and others, who specially studied the saviour
Scandinavian formations, but Kjerulf and Dahll, to whose re-
searches I have yet to refer, have lately declared themselves op-
posed to this view. According to Keilhau, the gneiss formation
of Kongsberg and of Flesberg, is, to the east of these districts, con-
formably overlaid by the Tellemarken quartzose group, into the
rocks of which the gneiss forms a gradual transition. The same
relations are described by Keilhau, as occurring at other points
of junction, and he concludes that the Tellemarken quartzose
group is to be regarded as filling up a very broad depres-
sion in the underlying gneiss formation. The quartzose group
is not found in contact with any of the schistose series described,
but the analogous quartzose group of Alten and Quaenanger is
overlaid conformably by the mica schist rocks of Trorasen and
Senjen. The relations of the latter to the DovreQeld slates are
unknown, for wherever the last mentioned come in contact with
strata belonging to the primitive gneiss formation, both the
quartzose and mica schist groups are absent, and the slates
of Dovrejeld rest conformably on the gneissoid strata. On
the other hand, these Dovrejeld slates form a continuous transi-
tion, through less and less crystalline slates, grey wa eke slates, and

in Norway and in Canada, 169

sandstones, into the fossiliferous Silurian strata of the district north
of Mjosen Lake. It seems therefore that the succession of these
groups, in the order of their antiquity, is as follows : —

1. Primitive Gneiss formation^

2. Quartzose ffroup. ") ^ . . .

^ Z' ( Primitive Slate

5. Micaceous group. >

4. Argillaceous and chloritic group. )

5. Greywacke slates, sandstones, and limestones.

6. Fossiliferous Silurian strata.

It is to be remarked, that besides these stratified groups, various
■eruptive formations occur, whose age or place in the above list it
is difficult to determine. Among these, the gneiss-granite of Vest-
flord, and the granite and gneiss-granite in the southern parts of
Bratsbergs Amt are the most important. The relations of the
latter to the Tellemarken quartzose group, have been minutely
investigated by Dahll, and described in his paper " Om Tellemark-
ens Geologie." He there unequivocally establishes the following
succession, commencing with the more modern formations.

1. Syenite with associated granite, rhomboidal porphyry and
augite porphyry.

2. The Devonian formation.

3. The Silurian formation.

4. Gneiss-granite and granite.

6. The slate formations of Tellemarken.

The relations of the latter formation to the primitive gneiss are
not touched upon in Dahll's paper ; but in another ^' Om Kongs-
bergs Erts District," by Kjerulf and Dahll, it is asserted that the
gneiss and mica schist of Kongsberg, or as they are called, the
Kongsberg slates, " are exactly the same as those which in a more
unchanged condition, are spread over large areas in Tellemarken,"
but separated from these by a band of eruptive gneiss-granite.
The primitive gneiss formation is declared to have no existence,
but to be resolvable into gneiss-granite, which is eruptive, and into
slates, whose two principal types are quartz slate and hornblende
slate. It is even said that gneiss " as a petrographical term, in
its older and more extended meaning, is no longer advantageous
to science, but the opposite." The order of succession in these
older group?, according to Kjerulf and Dahll, is as follows, com-
mencing wilh the oldest:

1. Tellemarken slates.

2. Granite and gneiss-granite. (Eruptive.)

170 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations

3. (Esterdal slates (which are the same as the DovreQeld slates.)

4. Silurian formation.

5. Devonian formation.

6. Younger granite, syenite, &c. (Eruptive.)

That the extreme opinions entertained by Kjernlf and Dahll as
to the gneiss formation, are capable of being substantiated, is much
to be doubted. At least it seems to me that in their work above
cited, nothing very conclusive is brought forward in support of
their views, and moreover, no reference is made to the many well
substantiated facts, upon which the older view, as to the age of
the Tellemarken quartzose rocks, is founded. This total oblitera-
tion of the gneiss formation, is perhaps the most extreme point
to which the supporters of ultra metamorphism have yet at-
tained.

The views of the Canadian geologists as to the Laurentian and
Huronian series are the same as those of the older geologists of
Norway, where, as has been shown, these rocks are represented
by the Primitive Gneiss, and by the quartzose division of the Pri-
mitive Slate formation. The DovreQeld slates, with their serpen-
tines, are regarded as more recent, and as closely related to the
adjacent Silurian strata. This is precisely the view of the
Canadian geologists, with regard to the Quebec group, except
that they include this, with its slates and serpentines, in the Silu-
rian series, regarding it as a peculiar development of the lower
part of this, and younger than the Primordial Zone. According
to Sir W. E. Logan, this Quebec group was connected with a deep
sea, and with movements of elevation and subsidence, the result of
which is, that along the outcrop, or the shore line of the original
basin, these peculiar strata are wanting. Mr. Sterry Hunt has
called attention in a recent paper in this Journal, to the fact that a
similar condition of things to that of Canada, seems traceable
across the ocean, into Scotland, and probably as far as Scandinavia.
In the Scottish Highlands, we find a schistose series, having the
lithological characters of the Quebec group and the Dovrefjeld
slates. This series has been the subject of much controversy. As
in Norway, some have maintained that these strata are older than
the lowest Silurian rocks, but Sir Roderick Murchison, with Ramsay
and Harkness, seems to have shown that they are really younger
than the oldest fossiliferous rocks of Scotland, and that the condi-
tion of things described by the Canadian geologists in Eastern
Canada, extends across the Atlantic. Can. Nat. Vol. VI, 93.

in Norway and in Canada, 171

Thus is it not only in Canada, that the position of the rocks of
the schistose group is equivocal. Different views prevail as to
their age in different countries. In Cornwall, they are considered
Devonian, in Scotland, Lower Silurian, and in Bohemia, as in Nor-
way, Pre-Silurian. In Belgium, Rhenish Prussia, Westphalia and
Nassau, they are by some geologists regarded as Devonian, and
by others as belonging to an older formation. In East Russia,
on the western slope of the Ural Mountains, they are supposed
to represent metamorphic Lower Silurian strata. A dissimilarity
of views will probably continue to prevail as to the position of
these rocks, until the question is decided, as to what value, in the
absence of fossil remains, the petrographical characters of a group,
taken in connection with its stratigraphical position, should
have in determining its age. Perhaps there prevails at present,
too much of a tendency to attribute extraordinary influences
to metamorphic agencies. So soon as the true limits and
effects of metamorphism are recognized, it will probably be
acknowledged that, whatever view may be entertained as to their
origin, the schistose rocks above referred to, underlie the Silurian,
and all unaltered or metamorphosed fossiliferous strata. Follow-
ing close upon more moderate views as to metamorphism, will
probably come the recognition of Werner's old rule, as to the suc-
cession of these older rocks ; namely that the gneiss groups gene-
rally underlie those in which mica schist preponderates, and that
the latter are overlaid by argillaceous and cbloritic groups.
Thus the ground will be cleared for an impartial investigation into
the origin ot the primitive formations.

Acton Vale, Canada East, 8th April, 1862.

ARTICLE XVII.— O/i the Mammals and Birds of the District,

of Montreal By Archibald Hall, M.D., L.R.C.S.E.

(Continued from page 18.)

Okd. II. Passeri>ce.

Fani I. Dentirostres. — Genus Lanius.

Gen. char. Bill long, compressed, toothed on the upper man-
dible, and much bent ; tip of the lower one suberect, and not
notched ; nostrils concealed by nuchal bristles ; cere wanting ;
nostrals subrotund, half closed by a membrane. 3rd and 4th
primaries longest.

I'^S Dr, A* Hall on the Mammals and Birds

L. excuUtor. Great American Shrike or butcher bird.
L. septentrionalis. Gmelin ! Buonaparte !
Collyrio borealis ? Buonaparte ! Baird !

v.s.p. Bill horn colour; claws black; irides hazel; eggs 6,
■cinereous white, mottled and streaked at their large end With
rufous.

Dorsal aspect. Crown, nape of neck, interscapular region, and
rscapulars, drab slate colour, or French white ; auriculars black, as
also the streak in front and behind the orbits and the nuchal
bristles ; above and below the orbits a narrow streak of white »
small wing coverts light brown, scapulars tipped with white;
greater wing coverts black, tipped with brownish white ; rump
white ; tail coverts white, with distal halves of the dorsal tint ;
tail cuneiform, two central feathers black, two next tipped with
white ; the white predominates in the others as far as the outer
or lateral feathers, the outer vanes of which are wholly white, the
inner vanes half white, the quill half being black; quills of the
primaries white — the remainder black, with minute brown white
tij)s ; secondaries black, tipped with white.

Ventral aspect. Dirty brownish white, intersected by linear"
zigzag lines of slate brown ; vent, tail and wing coverts white ;
primaries and secondaries slate colour ; tail black, verging to
slate, except the white of the upper surface, already mentioned,
which apears more conspicuous on the ventral aspect.

4th primary longest ; 3rd a little shorter ; tarsi black, slender ;
■middle toe a little longer than hind toe; claw of hind toe longest
and stoutest, all of them grooved ; inner edge of talon of middle
toe slightly salient. Length 10 inches; alar expanse about 14
inches.

Genus Muscicapa.

Gen. char. Bill moderately large, subtriangular, depressed at
the base, and compressed towards the tip which is deflected, both
mandibles emarginate; nostrils basal, suboval, and partly con-
cealed by nuchal bristles ; tarsus as long as the middle toe ; 4th
primary longest ; external and middle toes basi connected ; outer
.toe not versatile.

M. tyrannus. Tyrant Fly- catcher.
Tyrannus Carolinensis? Baird.

v.s.p. Bill, tarsi, and claws black; irides hazel. Eggs 5, yel-
3owish-white, blotched with brown.

of the District oj Montreal, 173

Dorsal aspect. Eyelids white ; auriculars black ; forehead,
sides of the crown, and nape of neck black, the qnill end of the
feathers grey ; crown orange red or scarlet, tipped with black,
forming a crest erectile at pleasure. Scapulars, interscapulary
region and rump, brown, with occasional greyish-white tips to the
feathers, especially on the back. Primaries and secondaries pure
brown, with their outer vanes edged with white ; greater and
smaller wing coverts brown, edged with white ; tail coverts black,
tipped with white; tail subrotund, of 12 feathers, black, with a
broad terminal band of white on the central feathers ; the lateral
feathers minutely edged with white.

Ventral aspect. White, except on breast, sides, and flanks,
which are slate colour ; wing coverts slate colour, shaded to
white towards the edges and tips ; tail coverts white ; wings slate
brown ; tail blackish-brown.

2r.d primary longest ; 1st and 4th subequal ; toes and tarsi of
equal length ; middle toe longest ; two outer toes equal ; talons
short, a salient inner ridge to the middle one. Length 8^ inches;
alar expanse 13 inches. Female and young resemble the male
in every respect except in the scarlet crest, which is wanting.
M. Crinata. Great crested Fly-catcher.

v.s.p. Bill brownish externally, yellow internally ; claws and
tarsi black ; irides hazel ; eggs 4, dull white, blotched and mot-
tled with purple.

Dorsal aspect. Coronal crest brown ; feathers acuminate,
erectile at will; nape of neck, scapulars, and dorsal region, olive
brown ; greater and smaller wing coverts clove brown, tipped with
dull white; primaries and secondaries clove brown, inclining to
bright rufous on the outer vanes of the former, and to white on
the outer vanes of the latter, with a paler rufous tinge on the in-
ner vanes of both. Tail of 12 feathers, square, the 2 centre feathers
clove browm, all the others clove brown on the outer vanes, and
bright rufous on the inner vanes.

Ventral aspect. Chin, throat, and auriculars bluish-grey,
shaded on the breast into bright sulphur yellow, which clothes
the breast, belly, vent, and tail and wing coverts. The bluish-
grey of the breast is continued along the sides as far as the flank^
becoming in its course blended with the sulphur yellow.

2nd and 3rd primaries subequal ; 1st and 5th equal. The bill
of this bird is about 1^ inch long from the angle of the mouth to

174 Dr, A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

the apex, and about 7 lines broad at the angles. The tooth is
situated close to the apex, and not well defined. The curve com-
mences immediately above it. There is a slight emargi nation at
the apex of the lower jaw correspondent with the tooth of the
upper one. Nostrils subrotund, imperfectly concealed by the
nuchal hairs ; aad between the orbit and the nostrils a few white
mottlings on the feathers are occasionally seen. Length 9 inches;
alar breadth about 13 inches. The female has the same tints as
the male but less bright.

Genus Muscipeta.

Gen. char. Bill large, broader than deep, ridged above, much
depressed ; upper mandible notched and hooked ; hook short ;
base set with strong nuchal bristles, which imperfectly conceal a
round nostril ; side toes unequal ; external toe longer than the
internal, and united to the middle one ; 3rd and 4th primaries
longest.

M. nunceola. Phgebe Flycatcher or Peewit.
M. atra of Gmelin !
M. phcehe of Latham !
M.fnsca of Buonaparte !
Sayornis fuscus. Gmel. 1 Baird !

v.s.p. Bill, tarsi, and claws black ; irides hazel ; eggs 6, pure
white.

Dorsal aspect. Dark olive brown, tips of wing coverts brown,
secondaries edged with brownish-white on their outer vanes ; tail
square, brown, outer vane of the last feather minutely edged with
white.

Ventral aspect. Yellowish-white, except the sides of the breast
which are of the dorsal tint.

3rd primary longest ; 2nd and 4th subequal ; 1st and 6th sub-
•equal. Length 6 inches; alar expanse about 9 inches. The
crown feathers of this bird, as well as of the birds of this genus,
form a crest which is erectile at pleasure.
M, virens. Wood Pewee.
M. rapax of Wilson.

D.c. " Bill, tarsi, and claws black ; irides hazel ; eggs 3 to 4,
yellowish-white, spotted and blotched with lilac and dark brown.
Whole dorsal aspect brownish-olive, verging to blackish on the
head. Ventral aspect, pale yellowish almost inclining to white ;
tail subfurcate ; 2nd primary longest. Length 6 inches ; alar
breadth 10 inches." (Nuttall).

of the District of Montreal. 175

M. querula. Small Pewee.

V.S.P. Bill blackish-brown ; tarsi and claws black ; eggs 5,
white ; irides hazel.

Dorsal aspect. Dull olive green, darker on the head ; prima-
ries and secondaries brown, the latter edged with brownish-white;
orbit surrounded by a ring of the same colour. Tail square, of
same colour as the wings, with a minute edging of white on the
outer vane of the lateral feathers.

Ventral aspect. Pale yellowish-white verging to an olive brown
on the sides of the breast ; inner wing and tail coverts pale yel-
low. 3rd primary longest ; 2nd subequal to 4th ; and 1st to the
6th. Length 6 inches; alar breadth 9^ inches. I feel utterly
unable to identify this species with the catologue list of Mr. Baird.
Genus Setophaga.

Gen. char. Bill depressed, with nuchal bristles ; both man-
dibles of equal length and acute, upper one scarcely notched,
scarcely bent at tip, and scarcely inflected on the lower ; 2nd and
3rd primaries subequal ; tail long and subcuneiform. The birds
of this genus are included under the sub gen. Saxicola of Genus
Motacilla of Cuvier. They appear, however, to deserve a separate
generic position by themselves, being intermediate between the
Muscipetal and Sylvian tribes, possessing the depressed inflected
bill of the fc^mer, and the long tail and tarsi of the latter, being .
more musical than the former, in fact emulating the latter in
point of vocal capacity.

S. ruticilla. American Redstart.
Muscicapa ruticilla^ of Linngeus and Wilson !!
Ruticilla minor Americana of Edwards !
Setophagus ruticilla. Baird !
v.s.p. Bill, tarsi, claws and irides black ; eggs 3 to 4, cream
white mottled with yellowish-brown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of head, nape of neck, dorsal region,
rump and scapulars deep black; tail of 12 feathers, long, round,
four centre ones black, the others orange, with thin distal halves
black; primaries and secondaries, except the outer web of the 1st,
and the three or four last secondaries orange at their insertion, and
the remainder black, the orange gradually increasing in breadth
and depth of tint as far as the secondaries.

Ventral aspect. Throat, chest, and front of the belly black ;
sides of the chest, and wing coverts bright orange ; lower part of

176 Dr. A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

the belly, and vent and tail coverts white ; wings pale orange ex-
cept the dismal ends which verge to slate colour.

2nd primary longest ; 3rd scarcely a line shorter, and 1st a
little shorter than 3rd; tarsus much longer than the middle toe
slender ; toes slender ; claws slender, compressed ; outer toe con-
nected to inner one at the base. Length about 5 inches ; alar
breadth about Y inches. The female has the tints paler, and the
orange changes to a yellow. The young birds thus far resemble
the female, but in exception they are deficient in the orange tint
of the wings, and are paler in other respects.

S. Buonapartii. Buonaparte's Gnat-catcher.

v.s.p. Upper mandible blackish-brown; lower one pale at
base edged with blackish brown; tarsi, toes and nails pale; eggs
unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Greyish-ash except the crown, the feathers of
which are black minutely tipped with grey, and the interscapular
space which is faintly olive green. A yellow streak from the
nostrils invests the eye, and a black streak from the angle of the
mouth proceeds below the eye to the shoulders, where it appears
to commence the zone of black spots which cross the chest like a
necklace ; auriculars grey ; primaries and secondaries with the tail
pale brown. The two former paler on the inner vanes and edged
with white towards the quills.

Ventral aspect. Bright gamboge yellow, only interrupted by
a zone of black spots across the chest. These spots are caused
by the feathers in that place being tipped with black. Tail and
wing coverts whitish.

3rd primary longest ; 2nd and 4th subequal ; 1st shorter than
the 4tb, but longer than 5th. Length 4| inches ; alar expanse 8
inches. This bird is rarely met with. The specimen from which
the foregoing description is taken, was killed at St. Kemi in the
spring of 1858. Is their sufficient difference between this bird
and the Sylvia pardalina, to constitute two species of different

genera ?

Genus Vireo.
Gen. char. Bill short, moderately compressed, curved at the
base, with nuchal bristles ; upper mandible curved at the extrem-
ity, slightly notched, resembling in this respect the Muscipeta, but
differing from the latter in being more compressed, and not at all
depressed, in consequence of which it is deeper than broad ; lower
mandible a little shorter than the upper, and recurved slightly at

of the District of MontreaL 177

the tip ; tongue cartilaginous and bifid ; 2nd and 3rd piimaries
longest ; outer toes connected at the base. Prevailing dorsal tint
olivaceous green, whence the familiar appellation " Greenlet."
V. Jlavifrons. Yellow-throated Greenlet.
V, (^Lanivireo,) flavifrons. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill, tarsi, and feet greyish-blue ; irides hazel ; eggs 4,
white, mottled with light and dark brown at the larger ends.

Dorsal aspect. Crown, and nape of neck olive ; scapulars and
dorsal region dark ash colour almost slate ; greater and smaller
coverts edged and tipped with white on the outer vanes, causing
an appearance of two bars of that colour ; primaries and secon-
daries clove brown, edged with olive which verges to white on the
outer vanes, and tipped with white on the inner vanes of all ex-
cept the three last secondaries ; tail of 12 feathers, round, clove
brown, with the three outer feathers edged with white on both
sides, and the centre feathers invariably edged with brownish-
white on their outer vanes.

Ventral aspect. A yellow streak round the orbits, intersected
anteriorly by a streak of dark olive passing from the base of the
bill ; chin, throat, and upper part of the breast, bright yellow, al-
most king's yellow, changing to olive on the sides of the breast,
and below the shoulders, and assuming an ashy tint on the flanks ;
belly, vent, wing and tail coverts white.

2nd and 3rd primaries subequal and longest; 1st and 4th sub-
equal. Length 5j inches ; alar breadth 9 inches.

V. olivaceus. Red-eyed Greenlet.
Muscicapa olivacea of Wilson !
M. altiloqua of Viellot !

Vireo (vireosylvea) olivaceus. Linn.! Viel.! Baird !
v.s.p. Upper mandibles blackish-brown ; lower one pale ;
claAvs pale with a black lateral streak ; middle one with a salient
inner ridge, all of them much compressed ; irides red in the adult,
hazel in the young birds ; eggs 3 to 4, white, mottled with light
and dark brown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of head ash colour, with a lateral mar-
gin over the eyes of a darker tint, a streak of white above the eye,
and a faint streak of grey from the angle of the mouth to the
auriculars; neck, back, rump, and scapulars olivaceous green;
primaries, secondaries, and tail light brown, with their outer
vanes edged with olive green and their inner ones with white.
Can. Nat. 12 Vol. VII

178 Dr. A* Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Ventral aspect. White with an inclination to pale yellow on
the sides ; wing and tail coverts white tinged with yellow.

2nd primary longest. Length 5f inches ; alar breadth 8 inches.
V. gilvus. Warbling Greenlet.
Muscicapa melodia of Wilson !
M, gilva of Viellot !
Vireo gilvus, Viel.! Buon.! Baird !
D.c. " Length 5 inches ; above pale olive green much mixed
with ash on the neck and shoulders ; line over the eye and lower
parts whitish ; near the breast and sides, and under the wings
tinged with pale greenish-yellow ; wings greyish-brown, edged
with pale olive green inclining to grey ; tail similarly edged and
slightly forked ; legs, feet and bill above lead colour ; the lower
mandible pale flesh colour; iris dark hazel. The sexes nearly
alike." (Nuttall).

Genus Sylvia.
Gen. char. Bill subulate, straight, slender, deeper than broad
at the base ; upper mandible frequently notched ; lower one
straight ; nostrils lateral, suboval ; tarsus longer than the middle
toe ; bastard wing short or wanting ; 2nd and 3rd primaries usu-
ally longest and subequal ; scapulars and wing coverts short.

S. citrinella. Summer Warbler. — Yellow-bird.
Dendroica cestiva. Baird!
V.S.P. Bill bluish; tarsi and feet pale; claws horn colour;
irides hazel ; eggs 4, dull white mottled with brown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown gamboge yellow ; nape of neck, inter-
scapulary region, and rump olivaceous green ; wing coverts, pri-
maries, secondaries, and tail clove brown edged with yellow. The
two central tail feathers have a minute yellow edging. The others
nearly altogether yellow except a clove brown streak along each
side of the shafts, which widens as it approaches the tips.

Ventral aspect. Light gamboge yellow streaked with rufous
orange.

Bastard wing wanting ; 1st, 2nd, and 3rd primaries subequal,
if anything the second longest. Length 5 J inches ; alar breadth
7^ inches. One of our most common songsters.
S. varia. Black and White Warbler.
Certhia maculata of Wilson !
Mniotilla varia. Baird !
v.s.p. Bill black above, pale below ; upper mandible slightly

of the District of Montreal. 179

cui'ved and compressed towards the apex ; tarsus not much longer
than the middle toe ; irides black ; eggs 5, whitish mottled with
brown.

Dorsal aspect. A white streak bordered by a black one, and
this by a white one immediately above the eye, proceeding from
the base of the bill, traverses the crown of the head and nape of
the neck, and is lost upon the shoulders, A black streak from
the angle of the mouth proceeds below the eye and includes the
auriculars. This is separated by a white line on the throat from
its fellow. Dorsal feathers black streaked with white ; tail coverts,
and greater and smaller wing coverts black, with white edging
and tips on the outer vanes ; primaries and secondaries clove
brown, with white edgings to the inner vanes of all, and slate
coloured edgings to the outer vanes, except on the 1st primary
and two last secondaries ; the former of which is minutely, and
the latter broadly edged with white ; tail feathers clove brown •
the two outer ones with broad white tips on the outer vane, the
rest, except the centre ones, edged with white on the inner vanes,
and slate white on the outer vanes. The two centre feathers clove
brown, with slate white edgings ; tail subfurcate.

Ventral aspect. Chin and throat black, all the rest white with
black streaks.

2nd primary longest; 1st and 3rd equal. Length 4f inches ;
alar breadth 8 inches. The female has the crown wholly black ;
primaries edged with olive, and less yellow ; the throat, as also in
the young bird greyish ; bastard wings rudimentary.

S, coronata. Yellow-crowned Warbler. — Myrtle-bird.
Dendroica coronata. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill, tarsi and toes black ; irides hazel ; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of head, and rump bright orange-yellow ;
forehead black, all the other parts slate colour spotted with black,
the spots most conspicuous in the interscapulary region, and least
so on the nape of the neck ; they are subtri angular ; greater and
smaller wing coverts brownish black, edged with slate and tipped
with white ; primaries and secondaries clove brown, edged with
brownish-white ; tail subfurcate, clove brown, edged with brown-
ish-white, and with a large white spot on the distal end of the
inner vanes of the three outer feathers.

Ventral aspect. Chin, belly, vent, and tail coverts Wack;
breast black, with white tips ; sides of the breast king's yellow ;
wing coverts slate ; flank feathers streaked with black. A black

ISO Dr» A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

line from the angle of the mouth proceeds backwards and includes
the auriculars.

2nd primary longest ; 1st and Srd equal. Length 5^ inches ;
alar expanse 8j inches. Winter plumage brownish-olive, with
scarcely any black, and the yellow much fainter. The young bird
much resembles the old in its winter plumage.

S* Pennsylvannica. Chesnut-sided Warbler.
,S^. icterocephala of Latham and Audubon 1!
Dmdroica Pennsylvannica. Baird !

V.S.P. Bill, tarsi, and toes black ; irides deep hazel ; eggs un-
known.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of the head yellow with an olivaceous
tinge ; dorsal feathers and scapulars black, tipped and edged with
olive yellow; greater and smaller wing coverts black, broadly
tipped with white tinged with yellow ; primaries clove brown,
edged with white on the outer and inner vanes ; secondaries edged
with yellow on the outer vanes, and with white on the inner vanes,
and tipped with the same colour ; tail subfurcate, clove brown,
the three outer feathers have the distal ends of the inner vanes
white, the edges of the other feathers minutely and faintly white.

Ventral aspect. A black streak from the angle of the mouth
passes above the eye and meets its fellow behind the yellow crown.
From the same point another passes downwards and backwards,
and terminates at the commencement of the chesnut band ; chin,
breast, belly, vent, tail and wing coverts white ; sides of throat,
the breast, and flanks, bright chesnut red.

2nd and Srd primaries equal and longest; 1st and 4th equal.
Length 4^ inches; alar breadth 7| inches. The female has the
crown and chesnut sides paler, and the young birds resemble her.
She also wants the black spot below the eye.

S. maculosa. Spotted Warbler.

S* magnolea of Wilson !

Dendroica maculosa. Baird !
v.s.p. Bill black ; tarsi and toes brown ; claws horn colour ;
irides deep hazel ; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown, and nape of the neck ashy blue ; inter-
scapular region black with yellow tips to the feathers ; rump yel-
low ; tail coverts black ; scapulars black edged yellow ; greater
and smaller wing coverts black, with broad white tips and narrow
edgings ; primaries and secondaries clove brown edged with white,

of the District of MontreaL 181

the ■white minute on the outer vanes and tinged with brown ; tail,
all the feathers, except the two centre ones, have a single broad
bar of white on the centre of their inner vanes.

Ventral aspect. A white streak passes from the nostril, sur-
rounds the eye, separates the ashy blue crown and nape of neck
from the black auriculars, and loses itself on the shoulders ; whole
lower aspect gamboge yellow, streaked with black along the
breast, sides and flanks ; tail and wings, with vent, white.

2nd primary longest ; 3rd a little longer than 1st. Length 4^
inches ; alar breadth V inches. The female has the breast whit-
ish and the colours duller.

S. pardalina. Canada Warbler.
Muscicapa Canadensis of Wilson.
Myiodioctes Canadensis. Baird !

v.s.p. Upper mandible brown ; lower one pale ; tarsi, toes,
and claws pale; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown black ; nape of neck, inters capulary re-
gions, scapulars, greater and smaller wing coverts, and tail coverts
ashy, with an olivaceous tinge in the interscapular space; wings
and tail brown, with a minute brownish white edging on the outer
vanes of the feathers of the former.

Ventral aspect. Eyelids yellow. A white streak from the angle
of the mouth, proceeds backwards below the eye, and including
the auriculars, terminates on the sides of the neck. All the in-
ferior surfaces gamboge yellow, with a broad belt of black spots
across the breast ; wing and tail coverts white.

2nd primary longest. Length 5^ inches ; alar breadth, 8j- in-
ches. Does this bird differ in any material respect from the Se-
tophaga Buonapartii ?

S. Philadelphica. Mourning Warbler.
Geothlypsis Philadelj^hica. Baird !

v.s.p. Upper mandible black with pale edges ; lower one, tarsi,
claws, and toes pale flesh colour; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Head and neck lead colour, darker on the crown
of the head, and terminating on the breast in a crescent of black
feathers, tipped wnth greyish white ; dorsal region, scapulars,
greater and smaller wing coverts, tail coverts and tail olive green,
the vanes of the last inclining to brown ; primaries and secon-
daries light brown, with olivaceous green edgings on the outer
vane of each feather, except the 1st on which it is white.

Ventral aspect. Lower part of breast, belly, vent, inner tail and

182 Dr. A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

wing coverts, light king's yellow, changing to olivaceous on the
flanks.

3rd primary rather longest ; 2nd and 3rd subequal. In some
cases the 2nd is a little shorter than 3rd, and 1st than 2nd. The
female resembles the male in every respect, except that the plu-
mage is duller. Length 5 inches ; expanse 8^ inches.

S. BlacJchurnm. Blackburn's Warbler.
Dendroica BlacJchurnice. Baird !

V.S.P. Bill, tarsi, toes, and claws black ; irides black ; eggs
unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown of head and nape of neck black, the
former intersected by a stripe of bright orange, and bounded as
well as the latter by a stripe of the same colour, which com-
mences at the nostrils and passes over the eye ; dorsal region
black, interspersed with a few streaks of brownish -white ; tail co-
verts black, margined with brownish white ; tail square, black.
The inner vanes of nearly all the lateral feathers white except to-
wards the tips ; outer vanes margined with brownish-white ; small
wing coverts black ; greater ones black with white tips to the
outer vanes ; coverts of the secondaries or scapulars all white.
Brownish-white margins on the outer vanes of the quill feathers.

Ventral aspect. An orange spot below the eye; auriculars
black, bounded by orange ; chin and throat bright orange, bound-
ed by black spots becoming more numerous on the belly and
flanks ; breast yellow, dull, fading to white on vent and tail fea-
thers, numerously interspersed with black streaks except in the
two last positions.

1st primary longest, then the 2nd, and then the 3rd. Length
4J inches ; alar expanse 8 inches. According to Nuttall the
three lateral feathers only have white on their inner webs. In the
specimens which I have seen, some five or six, it existed on the
inner vanes of all except the two central feathers. This bird is
one of the most pretty of the Sylvian genus. On the Island
of Montreal it is not plentiful, but is found much more numerous-
ly in the groves of St. Remi on the south side of the river.
S. virens. Black-throated Green Warbler.
Dendroica virens. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill, legs, and feet black ; irides black ; eggs 4, flesh
colour, mottled with purple and brown.

Dorsal aspect. Front yellow ; crown, nape of neck, and dor-

of the District of Montreal. 183

sal region yellowish-green ; tail coverts and scapulars grey with
yellowish-green tips ; greater and smaller wing coverts black with
white onter margins and tips ; quill feathers blackish-brown with
brownish white margins on the outer vanes, and white on haU
their inner vanes ; tail feathers brownish-black with brownish-
white emarginations on the outer vanes, and white spots on the
inner vanes of the 3 outer lateral ones.

Ventral aspect. Line over the eye, sides of the neck, and auri-
culars gamboge yellow ; chin and throat black ; breast and belly
whitish with black spots, most numerous on the sides ; inner
wing and tail coverts white.

1st and 2nd primaries subequal and longest ; 3rd about a line
shorter than the 2nd ; 4th a line shorter than the 3rd ; and 5th
about 2 lines shorter than 3rd. Length 5 inches ; alar breadth
8 inches. The female is said to have the " chin yellow, and the
throat blackish tinged with yellow."

S. striata. Black Poll Warbler.
Dendroica striata. Baird !

v.s.p. Upper mandible black ; lower one and legs pale flesh ;
irides hazel ; eggs 4 to 5, whitish mottled with brown.

Dorsal aspect. Grown and nape of neck deep black, bordered
by greyish white ; interscapular region, back and rump black, the
feathers margined with grey ; greater and smaller wing coverts
tipped with white, causing an appearance of two white bands on
the wing ; primaries and secondaries brown, the former with the
outer vanes edged with greenish-olive, the latter with greenish-
white. Two lateral tail feathers with white spots towards the
extremities of their inner vanes.

Ventral aspect. Auriculars and cheeks white ; throat, breast,
belly, and vent white, margined by a continuous line of black
spots or streaks, commencing at the brown mandible, and ending
on the flanks, and becoming gradually broader and larger from
the throat downwards ; inner tail coverts white.

1st primary longest. Length 5 inches; alar breadth 9 inches.
" Female and young dull yellow olive, streaked with black and
grey ; breast white ; cheeks and sides of the breast tinged with
yellow."

S. castanea. Bay-breasted Warbler.
Dendroica castanea. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill black ; legs and feet pale ; irides deep hazel ; eggs
unknown.

1 84 Dr, A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Dorsal aspect. Forehead and cheeks black, including the eyes
and the auriculars ; behind the auriculars a spot of bufFy white ;
crown of head bright bay ; scapulars, dorsal region and rump
brownish-black, with broad margins and tips of olivaceous yel-
low ; greater and smaller wing coverts black, tipped with white^
causing an appearance of two white bands; primaries, secon-
daries, and tail feathers brown, the three lateral tail feathers with
white spots on the inner webs near their tips.

Ventral aspect. Chin, throat, "Breast, and sides, bay ; belly, tail,
inner tail and wing coverts white, tinged with yellow.

2nd primary longest ; 1st and 3rd equal. Length 4J inches ;
alar breadth 7| inches. The female has a paler bay on th^
breast, and less black on the head.

S, ^:>mw5. Pine Warbler.
Dendroica pinus. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill and feet brown ; irides hazel ; eggs 4, greenish-
white, mottled with pale brown and slight purple.

Dorsal aspect. Olive brown interspersed with streaks of a dark-
er hue ; tail coverts olive yellow ; primaries and secondaries edged
with brownish-olive, narrowly on the 1st primary, rather broadly
on the 2nd ; the tips of all having a whitish worn appearance.
A yellow line, from the nostrils over the eye, terminates over the
auriculars which are of the dorsal colour.

Ventral aspect. Faint gamboge yellow, interrupted on the
breast by olive brown streaks, which are continued along the
flanks ; tail coverts bright yellow ; tail clove brown, outer vanes
edged with olive yellow ; inner vanes of the two lateral ones white
towards their tips.

2nd primary longest ; 1st, 3rd and 4th, subequal. Length 4f
inches ; alar breadth 7J inches. According to Nuttall, — " The
male is bright olive yellow tinged with green, beneath yellow
with obscure spots ; vent white ; wings with two white bands, and
with the tail dusky brown ; two lateral tail feathers partly white ;
lores not black." My description is taken from a female.
Sylvia rubricapilla. Nashville ^^^arbler.
Helminthophaga ruficapilla. Bair.: !

v.s.M. Bill horn colour, pale beneath at the b;ise; irides dark ;
legs and feet pale ; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Crown dark chesnut; frontlet, sides of head,
lores and occiput, ashy, tinted in the latter situation on the male

of the District of Montreal, 185

with olive yellow. Line from the nostrils to eye yellowish-white ;
line encircling the eye white ; interscapulary region, scapulars,
rump, tail and wing coverts olive yellow, brightest on the rump
and back : quill feathers and tail dusky, edged on the outer vanes
with yellow olive.

Ventral aspect. Chin, throat, breast, flanks, and tail coverts
king's yellow, diluted with ash on flanks ; belly and vent white ;
upper femorals white, tinged with ash, brown or yellow. Very rare.

Length about 4 J inches ; alar expanse, 7 inches. There is very
little difference between the male and female. The feathers on
the occiput in the specimen before me are destitute of the olive
yellow tint, and the line from the nostrils to the eye is white.
The yellow in the ventral aspect is equally as bright as in the
male. She has in contradistinction to the observation of Mr. Nut-
tall the bright chesnut crown, which is however scarcely so large
as in the female. A pair of these birds was shot by Sir W. Logan
in this vicinity, in the year 1841, from which this description is
taken.

Sylvia Canadensis. Black- throated Blue.
Dendroica Canadensis. Baird !

v.s.M. Bill black ; legs and feet dusky ; irides dark ; eggs un-
known.

Dorsal aspect. Head, interscapulary region, wing and tail
coverts slate blue ; quill feathers of wing and tail clove brown ;
all the primaries except the first, and the two outer tail feathers
with a white streak, which on the latter is situated on the inner
vanes ; outer edges of vanes of primaries and secondaries edged
with olive green ; of the tail with slate blue.

Ventral aspect. Cheeks, throat, and flanks below the wings,
deep black ; breast, belly, inner wing, and tail coverts white.

3rd primary longest; 2nd and 4th subequal; 1st shorter than
4th, but considerably longer than 5th. Length 4f inches ; alar
expanse 7 inches. A fine specimen, from which this description
is taken, was shot by Sir W. E. Logan in May, 1841. I have not
seen either the female or young. According to Nuttall, the black
of the female inclines to dusky ash or is wanting ?

The foregoing fourteen species of this numerous genus, are the
only ones which it has fallen to my lot to observe in this neigh-
bourhood. I have no doubt, however, that the district of Mont-
real might also furnish us with the S. AuricoUis, Autumnalip^

186 Dr. A* Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Parus, Americana, Trocbilus, Trichas, and probably Azurea,
These birds are Lnown to migrate as far North as, and
in one or two cases, beyond Canada, and they are to be discovered
in this District. As the object of this paper is not to speculate
upon what might be found, but to give descriptions of what really
has been found in this District, I refrain from any further re-
marks on this tribe at present.

Genus Regulus.

Gen. char. Bill straight, slender, deeper than broad, com-
pressed from the base, narrowed in the middle, with somewhat
incurved edges, and furnished with nuchal bristles ; upper man-
dible slightly notched and curved at the tip ; nostrils basal, oval,
and half closed by a membrane ; 3rd primary longest ; 1st and
Tth equal ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; tail notched.
R, calendula. Ruby-crowned "Wren.
Sylvia calendula of Wilson !
R. calendula. Baird.

v.s.p. Bill and legs brown ; irides black ; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Olive green, darker on the frontlet ; on the pos-
terior part of the crown an oval vermilion spot ; eyelids pale yel-
low ; tail and wing feathers clove brown, with yellow edgings on the
outer vanes of the quills of the former, and primaries of the lat-
ter. Inner vanes of all, and outer vanes of the secondaries edged
with white ; greater and smaller wing coverts tipped with white.

Ventral aspect. Yellowish-white throughout ; spureous wing
feather nearly an inch long.

3rd and 4th primaries equal ; 2nd and 5th equal ; 1st a little
shorter than the 6th, but longer than the 7th ; tail subfurcate.
Length 4 inches ; alar breadth about 6 J inches. The female and
young bird want the vermilion spot, and are otherwise more som-
bre.

R, cristatus. Golden-crested Wren.
Sylvia regulus of Wilson !
R. satrapa. Baird.

D.c. Bill black ; legs brownish-yellow ; feet and claws yellow ;
irides hazel ; eggs 6 to 12, yellowish-white spotted with red.

Dorsal aspect. Olive yellow inclining to ash on the nape and
sides of neck. A white line from the nostril, proceeds over the
eyes, and terminates above the auriculars. Above this passes a
broadish stripe of black, both stripes meeting on the frontlet ;
trown of the head rich flame colour. A black line from mandible

of the District of Montreal. 1S7

to the auriculars is accompanied by a white one below it ; wings
and tail dusky edged with yellow olive ; inner vanes of the pri-
maries and secondaries whitish ; greater and smaller wing coverts
tipped with white, edged in the former with brown, forming two
white wing bars ; tail long subfurcate. Female much more dusky
and dull whitish beneath. Length 4 to 4J inches ; alar breadth
7 J to 8 inches. — {Condensed from Nuttall.')

Genus Troglotides.
Gen. char. Bill slender, subulate, not so much compressed as
in the last, slightly curved ; nostrils basal, oval, half closed by a
membrane ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; inner toe free ;
nail of the hind toe longest; wings short and rounded ; 4th and
5th primaries subequal and longest.

T.fulvus. House Wren.

T. cedon of Audubon ! and Baird !

Sylvia domestica of Wilson !

Sylvia fulva of Latham !

T. cedon ^ Baird !
Y.s.p. Upper mandible brown ; lower one, legs and feet pale,
inclining to yellow ; eggs 10 to 18, white, with a few reddish
spots.

Dorsal aspect. Brown, darkest on the head, and except on
this place and the neck, barred with dusky ; primaries and se-
condaries clove brown, the latter barred with dusky and rufous
brown, the former with clove brown and white on the outer vanes
only; tail cuneiform, rufous brown with 9 to 10 dusky bars,
white taking the place of brown on the outer vane of the lateral
feathers.

Ventral aspect. Brownish-grey, barred on the vent, flanks and
tail coverts with blackish and brownish-white. A streak of the
ventral colour passes from the nostril over the eye, and terminates
behind the auriculars ; spurious wing feathers long.

2nd 3rd, and 4th primaries subequal, if anything the 2nd long-
est. Length 3| inches ; alar breadth 6 inches.

T. Europoeus. Winter Wren.

T. hyemalis of Viellot I

Sylvia troglotides of Wilson !

T. (anorihura) hyemalis. Baird !

v.s.p. Upper mandible black ; lower one, legs and feet pale ;
irides deep hazel ; eggs 10 to 18, white spotted with red.

188 Dr» A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Dorsal aspect. Rufous brown, darker on head and neck, and
numerously barred with dusky except in these two situations. On
the sides of the neck, and among the wing coverts, a few white
tips to the feathers may be seen ; wings and tail like the last.

Ventral aspect. Throat and breast rufous brown, with indi-
cations of bars of a deeper tint ; belly, vent, and tail feathers deep
brown, barred with a lighter shade ; spurious wing feathers
long.

3rd and 4th primaries equal ; 2nd and 5th equal ; 1st and 7th
equal. Dimensions same as the last.

T. Parkmanni. Parkman's Wren.
T. Parkmanni. Baird.

Y.s.p. Bill, upper mandible horn colour, and slightly curved ;
lower one whitish underneath; irides black; tarsi brownish,
coloured with seven distinct scutelse; eggs unknown.

Dorsal aspect. Prevailing tint reddish-brown, the dorsal feathers
tipped with white ; tail of the same hue, rounded, composed of
12 feathers with 12 bars of dusky black, the outer vanes of the
lateral ones with spots of whitish.

Ventral aspect. Prevailing tint on throat and breast greyish,
with faint barrings of umber brown ; abdomen greyish- white ;
hinder tail coverts whitish, barred with dusky black.

Length from tip of bill to extremity of tail, 4|- inches ; alar ex-
panse 5 inches. 1st primary half the length of the second, thus
giving the wing a rounded appearance. The tail is also rounded.

A specimen of this beautiful wren was shot in the vicinity of
this city by Mr. Hunter, Taxidermist to the Natural History So-
ciety, during the spring of 1861. It is now a specimen in the
cabinet of the Society.

Qenus Anthus.
Gen. char. Bill straight, slender, subulate from beyond the
nostrils ; upper mandible slightly notched near the tip ; nostrils
half closed by a membrane, basal and lateral ; hind claw longer
than the toe; 4th primary and 2nd scapular equal ; 2nd and c'rd
primaries longest.

A. spinoletta. Brown Lark. — Shore Pepit.
A. aquaticus of Audubon !
Alan da rufa of Wilson !
A, Ludovicianus. Baird ?
v.s.p. Upper mandible black; lower one pale; legs and feet

of the District of Montreal. 189

brown ; irides hazel ; eggs 4 to 5, sullied white, mottled with
brown.

Doi-sal aspect. Dark greyish-brown. Two central tail feathers
with margins of a lighter hue ; all the lateral feathers clove
brown, except the two external ones, the last one of which has
its whole outer web, and half its inner web white, and a spot of
white towards the distal end of the next one ; primaries and se-
condaries clove brown, with whitish margins to their outer webs •
scapulars clove brown with worn edges ; 2cd longer than 4th
primary, and white on the margin of the outer vane ; greater
wing coverts margined and tipped with brownish-slate colour ;
smaller ones tipped with pure white.

Ventral aspect. A streak from the nostrils encircling the eyes,
cheeks, sides of neck, and belly and vent light brownish red. On
the flanks, breast, and sides of neck, streaks or spots of black ;
chin white, merging into the reddish-brown of the throat.

1st, 2nd, and 3rd primaries subequal and longest. Length 6^
inches ; alar breadth 11 inches. The female differs from the male
in being more spotted, and the young bird has an olivaceous
blackish-brown dorsal tint.

Genus Am])eUs.
Gen. char. Bill short, a little depressed, deeper than broad ;
trigonous at the base ; upper mandible notched and curved at the
tip ; lower one straight and compressed at the sides ; nostrils
basal, lateral, subrotund, and half closed by a membrane ; tarsus
strong, a little shorter than, or as long as the middle toe ; inner
toe free; hind one longer than the nail ; lateral toes united as far
as the second joint ; 2nd primary longest.

A. sialis. The Blue Robin.

Sialia Wilsonii of Swainson !

Sylvia sialis of Wilson !

Saxicola sialis of Buonaparte !

Sialia arctica

Sialia sialis. Baird I
v.s.p. Bill and legs black ; irides bright hazel ; eggs 5 to 6,
pale blue, unspotted.

Dorsal aspect. Including the wings and tail, bright, glossy
azure blue. Towards the tips and edges of the inner vanea of the
primaries and secondaries there appears an incliDation of the blue
to a brown.

190 Dr. A. Hall on the Mammals and Birds

Ventral aspect. Ferruginous, deeper on the breast and paler on
the throat and vent, the latter almost white ; inner tail covert&
whitish.

2nd primary longest; 1st and 3rd subequal, and very little
shorter than 2nd. Length 6| inches; alar breadth 12 inches.
The female is duller coloured, and the young bird is dusky, with
occasional spots of white, and inferiorly whitish clouded with
dusky, but the wings and tail azure blue; hind claw only 2. the
length of the tarsus including the nail; middle toe and tarsus
equal.

Genus Bomhycilla,

Gen. char. Head crested ; bill short, straight, elevated, as d«ep
as broad at the base ; nostrils ovoid, basal, open, concealed by
nuchal bristles, projecting forward ; upper mandible with a strong-
ly marked tooth, and slightly curved towards its extremity;
exterior toe joined to the middle one as far as the 1st joint ;
1st and 2nd primaries longest ; spurious wing feathers very short ;
middle toe a little longer than the tarsus.

B. Carolinensis. Cedar Bird — Cherry Bird — Recollet.
Ampelis Americana of Wilson !
Ampelis cedrorum. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill, legs and feet black ; eggs 4 to 5, white, spotted
black towards their larger end.

Prevailing tint of the dorsal and ventral aspects, fawn, deepen-
ing in tint on the back, and changing to a yellow on the abdo-
men ; upper tail coverts black ; lower ones white ; primaries and
secondaries dark ash colour, with brownish- white margins to the
outer vanes, and white on the inner vanes ; shafts of the secon-
daries elongated with broad scarlet waxen tips. These tips vary
in number ; in the specimen before me there are seven, and in
others I have seen but one or two existing, and very often none
at all. Tail with a terminal broad yellow band, occasionally tip-
ped like the secondaries ; frontlet, streak to, and beyond the eye,
with the chin velvet black. A white streak on the posterior half
of the lower mandible, and on the posterior half of the eyelid ;
Crest large and conic.

2nd primary longest; 1st larger than the 3rd. Length 7
inches; alar breadth 13 J inches. The young birds are deficient
in the waxen tips, and I believe that the same ornaments are not
unfrequently met with in old females.

of the District of Montreal, 191

B. garrvtlus. Waxen Chatterer.
Ampelis garrulus of Linnaeus and Baird !

D.c. " Feet and legs black ; irides reddish ; eggs unknown.

"Anterior part of the head bay, passing posteriorly into a red-
dish drab, which is the prevailing dorsal tint, as well as of the
breast ; lower part of the back and rump ochreous ; belly and
femorals pale ash ; vent reddish chesnut ; quills dusky, the 1st
spotless, all the others with white spots towards the tips of the
outer webs; four of the secondaries with red waxen tips ; feathers
of the bastard wing tipped with white; tail 3 inches, black,
broadly terminated with pale yellow." — {Condensed from Nut-
tall.) They are extremely rare visitants and seen chiefly during
the early and latter winter months frequently accompanying the
Crossbill and Grosbeak.

Genus Turdus.

Gen. char. Bill straight, compressed and curved at the apex ;
upper mandible notched and furnished with nuchal bristles, point-
ing forward ; nostrils basal, lateral rounded, and half closed by a
nak«d membrane ; outer and middle toes connected at the base ;
3rd, 4th and 5th primaries longest ; scapulars about as long as
the secondaries.

T. migratorius. The Kobin. — Le Grieve.
T. (^Planesticus) migratorius. Baird !

v.s.p. Upper mandible black, with yellow edgings ; lower one
yellow with a black tip ; legs and feet dark brown ; eggs 5 bluish
green.

Dorsal aspect. Brown ; crown of head, occiput and auriculars
black; primaries, secondaries, and greater wing coverts dark
brown, with edgings of a lighter hue; tail square^ black; two,
sometimes three of the lateral feathers with white tips.

Ventral aspect. Orbit with three marginal white spots ; chin,
and throat white streaked with black ; breast, belly, sides, and
inner wing coverts red, the feathers tipped with white ; vent and
tail feathers white, the latter with a single broad conical brown
spot in the centre of the vanes; wing linings tinged with red.

3rd primary longest; 1st and 5th equal; scapulars half the
length of the secondaries. Length 10 inches; alar breadth 16
inches. The female ha^ duller colours.

T. rufus. Ferruginous Thrush or Thrasher.

r.s.p. Upper mandible black, not notched ; lower one, legs

192 Dr* A, Hall on the Mammals and Birds

and feet pale flesh colour, the lower mandible black towards tho
tip ; irides yellow ; eggs 5, greenish-white speckled with brown.

Dorsal aspect. Ferruginous ; greater and smaller wing coverts
of same colour, succeeded by a deep brown, terminated by a white
tip ; primaries and secondaries ferruginous on the outer vanes,
and inclining to ash on the inner ones, except the three last se-
condaries which are wholly ferruginous ; tail 5j inches long,
cuneiform; the three lateral feathers inclining towards their
tips.

Ventral aspect. White, with tear shaped spots of blackish-
brown on sides of neck, breast and flanks; tail coverts ferru-
ginous white.

4th primary longest ; 2nd of same length as secondaries; 1st
very short ; in consequence of which relative length of these quills
the wing is short and rounded. Length llf inches; alar breadth
13 inches. Female scarcely difl'ers from the male.
T.felivox. The Cat Bird.
Mimus CaroUnensis. Baird !

v.t.p. Bill black, not notched ; legs brown ; irides deep hazel;
eggs 4 to 6, emerald green.

Dorsal aspect. Slate colour ; crown of the head and tail black ;
primaries and secondaries blackish-slate colour.

Ventral aspect. Pale slate ; undertail coverts reddish-brown ;
tail rounded.

3rd primary longest. Length 8 J inches ; alar breadth 10 inches.
The female does not diff'er from the foregoing description. In
the young bird of the year the black of the head is not developed,
and the reddish-brown of the undertail coverts is paler.

T, minor. The Hermit or Little Thrush,
T, solitarius of Wilson !
Turdus pallasi ? Baird !
V.S.P. Upper mandible black ; lower one towards the base and
the legs pale flesh ; irides deep hazel ; eggs 4 to 5, greenish-blue,
mottled with olive.

Dorsal aspect. Olivaceous, inclining to rufous on the head, ac-
cording to Nuttall — in the specimen before me, olivaceous ; tail
ferruginous ; primaries and secondaries inclining to ferruginous
on the outer webs, and ashy on inner ones.

Ventral aspect. Line round the eye white ; chin, throat, and
breast yellowish-white, streaked with black on the side of the

of the District (^ Montreal, 193

throat, and spotted with black on the breast. The spots have an
olivaceous tint on the breast, and become blended together on
the flanks; abdomen, vent, and tail coverts pure white ; inner
webs of the secondaiies with an oval yellowish- white spot towards
the base of their inner webs.

3rd primary longest; 1st a little longer than 5th. Length 7J
inches; alar breadth 11 inches. Bill slightly notched.

T. musteJinus. The Little Thrush.
T. Wihonii of Buonaparte !
T. mustelimis. Baird !

v.s.p. Bill blackish-brown, except at the base of the lower one
which is pale ; legs pale brown ; irides deep hazel ; Qgg^ 4 to 5
emerald green.

Dorsal aspect. Brownish ferruginous ; an oval spot of yellow-
ish-white cowards the base of the inner webs of the secondaries.

Ventral aspect. Line round the orbits pale; cheeks, throat, ab-
domen, vent and tail coverts pure white; breast, and sides of the
neck cream colour spotted with brown ; sides of the breast and
flanks inclining to ash.

2nd primary longest; 1st and 3rd equal. Length 7 inches;
alar breadth 11 J inches. Tail square, feathers pointed.

T. melodus. The Wood Thrush.
T. mustelinus of Wilson ! Baird !

D.c. Above bright cinnamon brown, brightening into rufons
on the head, and mclining to olive on the rump and tail. Bt^neath
whitish, thickly marked with pencil shaped spots; vent pure
white ; orbits of the eye white ; bill dusky brown sligiitly notched,
the lower mandible flesh coloured towards the base ; legs and
claws very pale flesh colour ; iris dark chocolate. Length 8 inches;
alar breadth 13 inches.

(To be continued.)

Can. Nat. 13 Vol. VII

194 Macfarlane on the Extraction of Cobalt Oxide

ARTICLE XVIIL— O/z the Extraction of Cobalt Oxide from
the Iron Pyrites occurring near Brockville, C. W, By
Thomas Macfarlane.

About two miles to the north-west of Brockville, in the town-
ship of Elizabethtown, C. W., there exists a deposit of iron pyrites
ofvery considerable extent and importance. It belongs to the Lau-
rentian system, but it is not known what rocks immediately ad-
join it, as they do not come to the surface. Although an exca-
vation of fifty feet long, and thirty broad, has been made in the
deposit, the limit of the minerals in either direction, has not been
reached. Two varieties of the pyrites are found here, the one
somewhat porous and dull, and the other compact, of a yellow-
ish-white colour, and a very bright lustre. Iron pyrites, as is
well known, contains one equivalent of iron and two of sulphur ;
or 45. YY per cent, of the former, and 54.23 per cent, of the lat-
ter element. It is a most important source of sulphur for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid. The iron pyrites of the above
mentioned locality contains the usual constituents, but in the com-
pact variety especially, a portion of the iron is replaced by a
small per centage of cobalt, equal, according to Dr. Hunt's anal-
ysis, to 0.52 per cent, of cobalt oxide, and according to my own
to 0.50 per cent. The occurrence of cobalt in many pyrites of
the Laurentian formation, has been repeatedly remarked by Dr.
Hunt, and I have detected its presence in many specimens of
pyrites occurring in the Primitive Gneiss formation in Norway.
While at the Modum Smalt works, and the Skuterud cobalt
mines in that country, I had opportunities of experimenting on
these pyrites, and of devising a process for economically extract-
ing the cobalt which they contain. The principal object of the
present paper is to describe the manner in which this process
might be advantageously applied in treating the Brockville py-
rites.

When the compact variety of the cobaltiferous iron pyrites of
the above deposit, in fine powder, is mixed with one-tenth of
its weight of common salt, also finely divided, and calcined at a
low red heat, with free access of air, the following chemical
changes take place : — First, the greater part of the sulphur of
the pyrites is oxidized, and disengaged as sulphurous acid, the
iron also combining with oxygen and forming peroxide of iron.
At the same time the small proportion of cobalt present is con-

from the Iron Pyrites occurring near BrocJcville. 195

verted into cobalt oxide. At a later stage of the operation, part
of the sulphurous acid formed comes in contact with the peroxide
of iron, and is, through its agency, further oxidized into sulphuric
acid, which combines with the iron oxide, forming finally a com-
paratively small quantity of sulphate of peroxide of iron. The
cobalt oxide also combines with sulphuric acid, forming sulphate
of protoxide of cobalt. These sulphates react on the common
salt, producing sulphate of soda, with perchloride of iron and
protochloride of cobalt. Air having still access, the perchloride of
iron is resolved into peroxide of iron and chlorine gas, which es-
capes and may be recognized by its odour, so soon as the evolu-
tion of sulphurous acid has ceased. Protochloride of cobalt is also
decomposable by heating in a current of air, the products being
chlorine and cobalt oxide ; but this change does not take place
until the perchloride of iron has been wholly decomposed. It is
at this point that the calcination must be interrupted; that is, as
soon as the perchloride of iron is decomposed, but before the
decomposition of the protochloride of cobalt commences. When
the operation is stopped exactly at this point, the calcined resi-
due yields with water a solution containing no iron oxide, or but
a trace, and the whole of the cobalt in the state of protochloride.
I have made many trials of the above process with the Brock"
ville pyrites, all yielding results confirmatory of the above reac-
tions. Tho following are among the most conclusive of them :
1000 grains of the ore were calcined as above described, with 100
grains of common salt in a common muffle furnace. The mate-
rials were withdrawn from the muflfle, as soon as strong and pure
chlorine commenced to be evolved, and the evolution of chlorine
continued until the materials were cooled to a certain point. The
calcined residue weighed 780 grains, and contained in 100 parts,

Peroxide of iron 85.300.

Sulphate of soda 5.700 = 1.28 sulphur.

Protochloride of cobalt, . . 1.343 = 0.775 cobalt oxide.

Protochloride of copper.. 0.327 = 0.193 cupric oxide.

Perchloride of iron 0.059 = 0.029 ferric oxide.

Chloride of sodium 7,271 by difference.

100.000
The five last mentioned constituents were of course soluble in
water. According to these results, the 780 grains of residue must
have contained six grains of cobalt oxide ; consequently 0.60 per
cent, of this substance had been extracted from the pyrites. The

196 Macfarlane on the Extraction of Cobalt Oxide

1000 grains of pyrites contained 542.3 grains of sulphur, and
the 780 grains of the residue, only 9.98 grains Consequently
98.16 per cent, of the sulphur had escaped as sulphurous acid,
and only 1.84 per cent, had been converted into sulphuric acid
and combined with soda.

That the iron oxide, as stated above, has considerable influence
in converting the sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, will appear
from the following experiment: 59 grains of iron pyrites, 58^
grains of common salt, and 234 grains peroxide of iron, (free
from sulphuric acid) were mixed and calcined in a mufl3e, at a
low red heat, until sulphurous acid and chlorine ceased to be
evolved. The materials weighed after calcination 336 grains, and
contained in 100 parts :

Peroxide of iron 19.5

Sulphate of soda 19.2 = 4.31 sulphur.

Chloride of sodium. ... 1.3 by difference.

100.0
The original 59 grains of iron pyrites used, contained 32,
and the resulting 336 grains, 14.48 grains of sulphur. Conse-
quently 55 per cent, of the sulphur had escaped as sulphurous acid,*
and 45 per cent, were converted into sulphuric acid, instead of
1.84 per cent, as in the experiment above described. That the
larger quantity of salt used did not materially contribute to this
result, I have proved by a series of experiments, which resulted as
follows : —

1. When iron pyrites, mixed with 5 per cent, of its weight of
common salt, is calcined as in the last described experiment, 1.24
per cent, of the sulphur contained in it, is converted into sulphuric
acid, and combined with the soda.

2. When 10 per cent, of salt is used, 1.84 per cent, of the sul-
phur is, as we have seen, converted into sulphuric acid.

3. With 50 per cent, of salt, 2.86 per cent, of the sulphur is re-
tained as sulphuric acid.

4. With 100 per cent, of salt, 7.46 of the sulphur is thus re-
tained.

In this last, th<? proportion of common salt to the pyrites is
the same as in the experiment where peroxide of iron was used,
but in the latter case five times more sulphur was converted into

• The sulphurous acid was accompanied by chlorine, in almost the
proportions necessary for their complete conversion of the two into sul-
phuric and hydrochloric acids, on being brought into contact with steam.
(S08+ CI + HO = SO3 + HCl).

from the Iron Pyrites occurring near BrocJcville. 1 97

sulphuric acid, than when the pyrites was calcined with salt
alone.

Having thus explained the rationale of the process, I proceed
to touch upon its application on the large scale. It will be seen
from the above experiments that only a very small proportion of
the sulphur contained in the pyrites, is necessary for the extrac-
tion of the cobalt. There would be abundance of it left in the
pyrites for this purpose, even although it were previously roasted
in pieces of about the size of an egg. It has been found that the
residue from the burning of pyrites in lumps, in the manufacture
of sulphuric acid, contains six or seven per cent, of sulphur,* and
this would also be the case with the Brockville pyrites, if roasted
in heaps or shaft furnaces. A previous roasting would be of
advantage, because it would lessen the cost of the subsequent
calcination, render the pyrites more easily stamped to powder,
and admit of the manufacture of sulphuric acid from the sulphur-
ous acid evolved. After roasting, the pyrites is reduced to pow-
der, and mixed with the salt. The mixture is then brought on
to the hearth of a common calcining reverberatv->ry furnace, heated
to low redness, raked about, and tested from time to time.
So soon as pure chlorine is evolved, and the mass ceases to glow
in the furnace, and gives with water a solution containing little or
no iron, the mixture is withdrawn from the furnace. When cool,
it is brought into a large tub, where it is stirred up with hot
water. If the calcination has been properly performed, a solution
is obtained having a beautiful rose colour. This is drawn off, or
if necessary filtered from the insoluble residue of peroxide of iron
which is washed with fresh quantities of water until it no longer
yields a solution containing cobalt The more dilute solutions
thus obtained, are used for treating fresh quantities of the cal-
oined material. The rose-coloured solution contains besides the
oobalt, a small quantity of copper, and a trace of iron, together
with whatever sulphate of soda has been formed, and the com-
mon salt which may have been left undecomj^osed. The copper
and iron may be separated from the solution by adding a slight
quantity of a dilute solution of carbonate cf soda. They are pre-
cipitated as carbonates, before the cobalt, and are separated from
the solution by filtration. The filtrate is then treated with a
further quantity of a solution of carbonate of soda, more con-

• Fabriques de produits chimiques. Rapport a M. le Ministre de I'ln-
terieur, par la Commission d'enquete. Bruxelles, 1856.

198 Macfarlane on the Extraction of Cobalt Oxide

centrated than before. Carbonate of oxide of cobalt falls as a
peach-blossom colored precipitate. This is washed by subsidence
and decantation, collected on a linen filter, dried and ignited in
close vessels. The result is pure cobalt oxide, such as is used
for imparting a blue colour to porcelain and stone-ware. Its price
in the English market, about a year ago, was thirteen shillings
sterling the pound, and probably its present value may with safety
be assumed to be eleven shillings sterling.

The cost of the process above described, depends of course,,
much on the locality where it is carried into operation. But even
supposing this to be some distance from the mine, I believe the
manufacture would be found to be remunerative. The cost of both
mining and manufacturing might be estimated as follows : —

Excavation, per ton $3 .00

Roasting " 0.25

Freight to factory, say 2.50

Stamping 0.50

Calcining 6.00

Lixiviatiou, precipitation, &c 1.25

Freight to market, agency, &c 0.50

$14.00
From one ton of ore there might be produced, making some
allowance for occasional failures, at least eight pounds of cobalt
oxide, worth eleven shillings sterling the pound, equal to £4 8
Or $21.12. I think therefore that the treatment of the
Brockville pyrites for cobalt might reasonably be expected to
yield a profit of, say $7 per ton. Of course, many disadvantages
and failures are apt to attend the commencement of any new
manufacture, but in the above estimate I have made some allow-
ance for such.

In this calculation, I have reckoned nothing for the sulphur
which the pyrites contains. Were the manufacture of sulphuric
acid combined with that of the cobalt oxide, there is no doubt
but that a very remunerative business might be established.
Canada is certainly not a manufacturing country. It is therefore
improbable that much sulphuric acid would be used here for
manufacturing soda, or in bleaching or dyeing. But Canada
contains inexhaustible sources of rock oil or petroleum. Ow-
ing to the ofi"ensive odour of this substance in its crude state, it
is diflScult to prooure freight for it to Great Britain. This neces-

from the Iron Pyrites occurring near BrocJcville, 199

sitates its purification in Canada, and as is well known, sulphuric
acid is the most efi'ective deodorizer that can be employed in re-
fining it. In proportion then as refineries for petroleum are es-
tablished, the demand for sulphuric acid will increase, and no
doubt a manufactory of this acid would be able to dispose of an
immense quantity. There are very few chemical manufactures
which may be said to be indigenous to Canada, but this one, of
the products to be obtained from these pyrites, in conjunction with
that of refined oils from crude petroleum, possessing a natural
and sound foundation in the province, would flourish rapidly, and
doubtless be permanently successful.
Acton Vale, C. E., 13th May, 1862.

ARTICLE XIX. — List of Entomologists in Canada. By Rev.
Charles J. S. Bethune, B. A., Cobourg, C. W.
The following list of those engaged in the study of Entomology
in Canada has been prepared chiefly with the object of making
collectors known to each other. It is almost unnecessary to state
that the idea was suggested by the lists in Stainton's Entomologists'
Annuals. It was at first considered that the great and primary ad-
vantage to be derived from it was that collectors in one part of
the country would be enabled by its means to find out who are
addicted to their favourite pursuit in other places, and thus obtain
specimens of those local species in which their own collections are
deficient Since, however, the number of those engaged in this
study has proved to be so much larger than was at first anticipa-
ted, several of my correspondents have agreed with me in the opin-
ion that it would tend very much to the advancement of Entomo-
logy in this country, were a club to be formed, and meetings to
be held once or twice a year at some central place, to be decided
upon hereafter. We have come to the conclusion that, if this
project meets with sufficient encouragement from Entomologists,
no better time or place could be selected for the first meeting than
that appointed for the next exhibition of the Provincial Agricultu-
ral Association, which is to be held at Toronto, during the week
commencing September 22nd, 1862. If such a meeting can be
held, it is much to be desired that Entomologists should bring to
it all their undetermined specimens, as well as any duplicates they
may have of rare species; by so doing favours could be mutually
conferred, and much information difl'used with regard to the dis-
tribution of species, etc. The Meeting would, doubtless, prove ad-

^0 Rev. Chas. J. S. Bethune

vantageous in many other respects ; and, in addition, such a reu-
nion of kindred spirits could not fail to prove exceedingly agree-
able. I trust, therefore, that this project may not fall to the
ground, but that before long, Canadian Entoniologists may have
the pleasure of making each other's acquaintance.

In the following list is enumerated every Entomologist in Ca-
nada whose name and address I could learn, and who was willing
to permit his name to appear ; there may be a few others, — if so
I trust they will speedily make themselves known either to Mr.
Saunders (who has kindly shared with me the trouble of prepar-
ing this list) or to myself.

1. Beadle, D. W., St. Catherines, C. W. Coleoptera and L^pidoptera.

2. Bell, R., Provincial Geological Survey, Montreal. All orders ; hut

especially Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

3. Bbthdne, Rev. Charles J. S., B. A., Cobourg, C. W. Coleoptera

and Lepidoptera.

4. Billings, B., Prescott, C. W. Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthop-

tera.

5. Billings, E., F.G.S. Provincial Geological Survey, Montreal. Coleo-

ptera and Lepidoptera.

6. Bush, Geo., Cold water. County of Simcoe, C. W. Insects of all

orders ; collects also for sale.

7. Clementi, Rev. Vincent, B. A., Peterboro', C. W. Coleoptera and

Lepidoptera.

8. Cottle, Thomas, Woodstock, C. W. Lepidoptera.

9. CouPER, William, National Bank Building, John street, Quebec.

" Entered the Entomological fields of Canada in 1843, and still con-
tinues his researches. Collects all the orders, and studies the geo-
graphical distribution of Coleoptera."

10. CowDRY, Thomas, M. D., York Mills, County of York, C. W. All
orders.

11. CowDRY, Harrington, York Mills, C. W.

12. Croft, Prop. Henry, D.C.L. University College, Toronto. Collects
all orders, but more especially Hymenoptera and Coleoptera. His col-
lection of Coleoptera is the finest in the Province.

13. Crooks, Miss Kate, Hamilton, C. W.

14. CcMMiNGS, WiLLOUGHBY, Chippawa, C. W. Coleoptera and Lepidop-

tera.

15. Denton, J. M., Dundas Street, London, C. W. Lepidoptera and Cole-

optera.

16. Devine, Thomas, Crown Lands Department, Quebec.'

17. Dewar, Miss, London, C. W. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

18. Edwards, W., Port Stanley, C. W. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

19. Gibbon, Miss, St. Mary's, C. W. Lepidoptera.

20. GiRDWOOD, G. P., Asst. Surgeon, Grenadier Guards, Montreal.
31. GiRDWOOD, Mrs. G. P., Montreal.

<m Entomologists in Canada. J801

22. Grant, Francis, Orillia, C. W. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

23. Hill, Rev. Geo. S. J., M. A., Markham, County of York, C. W.
Coleoptera and Diptera.

24. HiscKS, Rev. William, F. L. S., Prof, of Nat. Hist. University Col-
lege, Toronto. Studies all orders ; b-.t does not collect.

25. HuBBERT, James, Knox's College, Toronto, and (during Vacations)

Grafton, County of Northumberland, C. W. Diptera, Neuroptera,
andj to some extent, Coleoptera.

26. Kreighoff, C, Quebec. Insects of all orders ; pays particular atten'
iion to Lepidoptera {Heterocera, and Coleoptera.

27. Lawford, J. M., Toronto. Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

28. Lawrason, W. L., Dundas Street, London, C. W. Lepidoptera and

Coleoptera.

29. Morris, Beverley R., M.D. Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, and
the Blind ; 490 Queen street, Toronto. Ml orders ; hut chiefly Cole-
optera and Lepidoptera.

30. Provancher, Rev. L., St. Joachim, Montmorency, C. E. All orders
except Apt era ; pays especial attention to Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

31. Reed, E. Baynes, London, C. W. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

32. Reynolds, T., Financial Director, Great Western Railway, Hamil-
ton, C. W. Lepidoptera.

33. RooKE, Capt. W. S., Scots Fusilier Guards, Montreal. Coleoptera
and Diurnal Lepidoptera.

34. Saunders, William, Dundas Street, London, C. W. Ml orders;
chiefly Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

35. Tcrton, F., Simcoe Street, London, C. W. All orders ; chiefly Cole-
optera and Lepidoptera.

36. Rogers, Robt. V., Jr., St. James' Parsonage, Kingston.

ARTICLE XX.^Onthe Chemistry of (he Far th. ByT.STERRT
HuKT, M. A., F.R.S. ; of the Geological Survey of Canada.

Extract of a letter to Elie de Beaumont, published in the Comptes Rendu*
of the French Academy of Sciences, June 9th. 1862.

On the 28th of October, 1844, a memoir was deposited with
the Academy by the illustrious Cordier. Being in a sealed packet,
its contents remained unknown until after liis death, when at the
request of his widow, the seal was broken, and the paper, which
bears the date of October 22, 1844, was first made public; in the
Comptes Remlus of the Academy for February 17, 1862. In this
remarkable memoir, wliicli has for its title "On the origin of the
calcareous rocks which do not belong to the primordial crust,"
(De Vorigine des roches calcaires, etc.,) the author givos his
views upon the formation of limestone and dolomite. He rejects
Von Buch's theory of dolomitization, wuich still finds some sup-

202 Dr. Hunt on the Chemistry of the Earth,

porters, and which supposes that the magnesia was introduced
subsequent to the deposition of the sediments, by a " certain mys-
terious action of intrusive pyroxenic rocks," which have been ejected
in the vicinity of deposits of pure limestone. Mr. Cordier also
combats the idea that these last have been formed entirely of the
debris of testacea and zoophytes, which according to him, form
but a small proportion of limestone formations. Going back still
farther, he finds the source alike of the carbonate of lime of these
organic remains, and of the great mass of calcareous rocks, in cer- '
tain chemical reactions. The pure limestones, according to him,
pass into magnesian limestones by an admixture of dolomite, and
form thus a transition to the pure dolomites, so that we must ad-
mit a common origin for all these rocks. The source of the two
carbonates which compose them, according to Mr. Gordier, is to
be found in the reaction of carbonate of soda upon the chlorids of
calcium and magnesium in sea-water ; the carbonate of soda
being derived from the decomposition of feldspars, from alka-
line springs, and from plutonic emanations. This alkaline salt,
reacting upon the salts of sea-water, would give rise to chlorid of
sodium and carbonate of lime, and under certain conditions, to
calcareo-magnesian precipitates. From this reaction must result
a secular variation in the composition of the ocean, which cor-
responds to the progressive changes in the marine fauna of suc-
cessive geological epochs.

Such is the theory of Mr. Cordier, which is now published, for
the first time, in 1862 ; and which I have thus noticed in order to
call the attention of the Academy to my own published papers, in
which I have maintained similar views for the last four years. In
The American Journal of Science for January, 1858, 1 endeavored,
in admitting the igneous theory of the earth's origin, to obtain some
notion of the chemical conditions of the cooling globe,by supposing
the matters which now form the earth's crust to be fused together
by an intense heat. From this would result an atmosphere hold-
ing, in the state of acid gases, all the carbon, the sulphur, and the
chlorine, besides the elements of air and water ; while the bases,
such as the alkalies, lime, magnesia, oxyd of iron and alumina, in
combination with silica, would form the solid crust. This would
afterwards be attacked by the acids precipitated, with water, un-
der the pressure of a high atmospheric column, and at an elevated
temperature ; from which would result the separation of a great
amount of silica, and the formation of an ocean, whose waters

Dr, Hunt on the Chemistry of the Earth, 203

would contain in the state of chlorids and sulphates, not only al-
kalies, but also large portions of lime and magnesia. At a later
period, the decomposition of exposed portions of the silicated crust
under the influence of water and carbonic acid, would give rise,
on the one hand to clays, and on the other to carbonate of soda.
This latter, reacting upon the calcareous salts of the sea-water,
must produce chlorid of sodium and carbonate of lime. We have
here a theory of the source of the quartz, the carbonate of lime,
and the argillaceous matters of the earth's crust, explaining at the
same time the origin of the chlorid of sodium of the sea, and the
fixation of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere in the form of
carbonate of lime. In this is seen a great and harmonious series
of chemical processes, which have operated, and which continue
to operate at the surface of the globe. These notions of the chem-
istry of the earth has been taught in my public lectures for the
last four years, and will also be found in a paper read before the
Geological Society of London on the 5th of January, 1859, and
published in the Quarterly Journal of the same Society for that
year, p. 488. In support of these views will be found the results
of a series of investigations published in the Reports of the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, and in the American Journal of Sci-
ence for 1859, upon the reactions of solutions of bicarbonate of
soda with sea-water, and upon the conditions required for the
precipitation of carbonate of magnesia and the formation of dolo-
mite. We have there also shown the mutual decomposition at
ordinary temperatures, of solutions of bicarbonate of lime and
sulphate of magnesia, resulting in the formation of gypsum, and
of a soluble bicarbonate of magnesia, which becomes the source of
dolomite or of sepiolite. A notice of the first part of these researches
will be found in the Comptes Eendus for May 23, 1859. In the
continuation of them, as cited above, it has been shown that the
association of magnesian and pure limestones, establishes the fact
that these rocks have both been deposited as sediments, and
that the hypothesis which explains the origin of dolomites by a
subsequent alteration of pure limestones is inadmissible. It was
also shown that great portions of limestone, even in fossiliferous
formations, have the characters of precipitates resulting from
■ chemical reactions, and have never formed part of organised be-
ings ; which last, moreover, owe their carbonate of lime to similar
reactions.

My views upon the composition of the primitive ocean were

2^4 Dr, Hunt on the Chemistry of the Earth,

farther supported by the analyses of nuraerous saline waters from
Lower Silurian limestones. In these waters, the bases of which
are almost wholly in the condition of chlorids, about one-half of
the chlorine is combined with sodiura, and the other half is nearly
equally divided between calcium and magnesium.

The Academy will perceive from the short analysis above given,
the extent and the importance of my generalizations, with which
the ideas of Mr. Cordier are, for the most part, in perfect accord-
ance. It will farther be observed, that the publication of Mr.
Leymerie, in which similar views are, to a certain extent, indi-
cated, (see the Comptes Rendus of March 10, 1862,) dates only
from 1861, while my own papers appeared in 1858 and 1859.

My researches upon the origin of dolomites and limestones fully
justify the previsions of Mr. Cordier. He however, in his theory,
excepted the limestones of primitive formations, but these are
known to modern geologists to be nothing more than metamor-
phosed sedimentary formations, and consequently offer no excep-
tion to the general view. The different sources of carbonate of
soda indicated by Mr. Cordier, may moreover be reduced to a
single one, inasmuch as both the salts of alkaline springs, and those
of what he calls plutonic emanations, are probably derived from
the decomposing feldspathic minerals of sedimentary rocks. The
argillaceous rocks, deprived of a large proportion of the alkali
which they once contained in the form of feldspars, are the equiv-
alents of the limestones which have been formed at the expense
of the chlorid of calcium of the primitive ocean.

The waters of certain rivers contain alkaline carbonates, in some
cases with notable proportions of silica and potash ; an example
of this is found in the water of the Ottawa. The presence of
silica and potash in river waters appears to be in great part due
to the soluble matters derived from the decomposing vegetation
of peat bogs, for in the waters of deep-seated springs, both neu-
tral and alkaline, the salts of potash are generally found in very
minute quantities. This is not surprising \^hen we consider the
great stability of potash-feldspar, and also the power which alum-
inous soils possess of removing silica and potash from infiltrating
waters, and of replacing the latter by soda. Atmospheric waters thus
dissolve from sediments only the soda, lime and magnesia which
these contain, and, with the intervention of organic matters, oxyd
of iron, and sometimes oxvd of mano-anese. It results from these
affinities that the sediments which are most silicious, and conse-

Dr, Hunt on the Chemistry of the Earth. 205

quently most porous, retain at last little more than silica, alum-
ina and potash; while the more or less impalpable and imperme-
able sediments, which include large proportions of clay and marl,
retain their soda, lime, magnesia and oxyd of iron, and yield,
when metamorphosed, triclinic feldspars, pyroxene, hornblende,
and other minerals of basic rocks. The alteration of the more
silicious and thoroughly lixiviated rocks, on the contrary, will
yield chiefly orthoclase, mica and quartz. In this way is
explained the origin of the two great classes of rocks, the gran-
itic or trachytic, and the pyroxenic types. These two types ap-
pear alike among the metamorphic strata, and the intrusive
masses, which last we have distinguished by the title of exotic
rocks, regarding them as displaced metamorphosed sediments,while
the metamorphic strata in situ are indigenous rocks. It follows
as a consequence of the principles above defined, that the com-
position of aluminous sediments must vary in the different geo-
logic epochs. In the Laurentian, which is the oldest known system,
rocks, having abase of triclinic feldspars, which contain much
soda, abound, while argillaceous rocks, like argillites, are un-
known. These however become abundant in more recent for-
mations, where natriferous anorthites, like those of the Lauren-
tian system, are comparatively rare. (See farther Quar. Jour.,
Geological Society, 1859, p. 488, and Am. Jour, of Science.)

ARTICLE XXI. — Description of a new Enaliosaurianfrom the
Coal Measures of Nova Scotia. By 0. C. Marsh, B. A,
(Abridged from SUliman^s Journal.')
The Reptilian remains from the Coal-measures, hitherto de-
scribed, are few in number, and have nearly all been regarded as
Batrachian, or Amphibian. Previous to the year 1844, the
existence of even this low form of reptilian life during the Car-
boniferous period was unsuspected by most geologists, and its
first appearance upon the earth confidently referred to the Per-
mian epoch. In that year Herman von Meyer announced the dis-
covery in the Rhenish Bavarian Coal-measures of a reptile allied
to the Salamanders, which he described under the name Apateon
pedestris;^ and about the same time Dr. King published an
account of the footprints of a large Batrachian, which he had

• Leonhard and Bronn, Neues Jahrbuchfiir Mineralogie, etc., 1844, page
33$.

S06 Marsh, description of a new Enaliosaurian

observed in the coal strata at Greensburg, Penn * In 1852 Sir
Charles Lyell and Prof. J. W. Dawson obtained in the Coal-
measures of Nova Scotia the bones of the Dendrerpeton Acadia-
num (Wyman and Owen), which were the first reptilian osseous
remains described from the Carboniferous rocks of America.f

Since these discoveries were made, the Coal-fields of England
and Nova Scotia, as well as those of Ohio and Pennsylvania, have
aff'orded additional Batrachian, or Amphibian, bones and foot-
prints, so that at the present time the prevalence of this type
of reptilian life during the Carboniferous period is generally ad-
mitted. The more recent researches of Prof. Dawson in the
Coal formation of Nova Scotia have been rewarded by the im-
portant discovery of a new genus (^Hylonomus) of very small rep-
tiles, which, he considers, had affinities to the Lacertians, and
possibly belonged to that family, rather than to the Batrachians.|

The remains which form the subject of the following description
are of great interest, since they indicate the existence during the
Palaeozoic period of a group of highly organized marine reptiles
of large size, which have previously been found only in Second-
ary strata. These remains consist of two vertebrae, or more strictly
two centra or bodies of vertebrae. The vertebrae was discovered
by the writer in August, 1855, while examining the Coal-measures
of Nova Scotia in company with his friend, Mr. WiUiam E. Park, of
Andover, Mass. Their resemblance in form and appearance to the
vertebrae of an Ichthyosaurus was so marked, that at the time of the
discovery the writer referred them to that genus, and made a careful
exploration in the vicinity for further remains, but without success.
As soon as an opportunity occurred, the fossils were compared
with the vertebrae of Ichthyosauri from the Lias, and, although
some points of difi'erence were noticed, the Enaliosaurian charac-
ters seemed to be equally well marked in each. Wishing to ob-
tain, if possible, some additional remains, the writer for sometime
deferred publishing a description of the vertebrae ; but a careful re-

* Description of fossil footmarks (of Thenaropus heterodactylum) found
in the Carboniferous series in Westmoreland County, Penn. ; by Alfred
T. King, M.D., Am. Journal of Science, vol. xlviii, page 343. Also in
vol. i, new series, page 268.

f On the remains of a reptile (Dendrerpeton Acadianum, "Wyman and
Owen), and of a land shell discovered in the interior of an erect fossil
tree in the Coal-measures of Nova Scotia ; by Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
&c., and J. W. Dawson, Esq. Quarterly Journal of the Geological So-
ciety, London, May, 1853, vol. ix, p. 58.

X Proceedings of the Geological Soc. of London, 1859. Also Supple-
ment to Acadian Geology, page 33.

from the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia. 207

examination of the locality during the past summer afforded nothing
of a similar nature, and there seemed to be no reason for longer
delay in announcing so important a discovery. The remains were,
accordingly, briefly noticed by the writer in the last number of
the American Journal of Science ; and, as they appeared to be
generically distinct from any hitherto described, he then proposed
for the species the name Eosaurus Acadianus, in allusion to the
early appearance on the earth of this higher type of reptilian
life*

The locality which furnished these fossils is at the South Jog-
gins Coal formation, in Nova Scotia, on the southern shore of
the Chiegnecto channel, a branch of the Bay of Fundy. The
Coal-measures at this place, according to Sir W. E. Logan, havef
a vertical thickness of 14,570 feet, or nearly three miles; and con-
tain seventy-six distinct seams of coal, with erect trees and plants
at twenty-two different levels. The strata dip to the south at an
angle of about 25° ; and the destructive tides of the bay are con-
stantly undermining the high cliffs, and exposing for miles along
the coast fresh sections, rich in fossil treasures of vegetable and
animal life.

The present remains were imbedded in a stratum of argillaceous
chocolate-colored shale, which forms part of group XXVI. in the
elaborate section of the formation made in 1852 by Sir Charles
Lyell and Prof. J. W. Dawson. J The position of this group is a
little more than 10,000 feet above the lower limits of these Coal-
measures, and beneath nearly 5,000 feet of coal strata, containing
at least twenty separate veins of coal. It is about 800 feet above
the locality which afforded the remains of the Dendrerpeton and
Hylonomus.

This group is sixty-six feet in thickness ; and consists of choco-
late and gray shales, containing ironstone nodules, and interstrati-
fied with bands of gray sandstone, in which may occasionally be
observed ripple marks, and carbonized land plants. Erect Sigil
larioe, often of large size, occur at one level, and erect Calamite
at another. Prof. Dawson considers these deposits estuary or flu-
viatile sediments, covering flats, which were at times dry, or near-

* From r)ws the dawn, and cravpos, a lizard. The specific appellation
is from Acadia, a former name of Nova Scotia.

t First Report on the Geology of Canada, 1845,
X Transactions Geological Society of London, 1853.

208 Marsh, description oj a new Enaliosaurian

ly so, and at others inundated. On one of the rippled sandstones
he noticed a series of footprints, which he supposes might have
been made by a large Dendrerpeton.

Group XXV., immediately beneath the locality of the vertebrae
is ab'tut twenty feet in thickness; and consists of a series of un-
derclays, or fossil soils, with S ti(/maria, Siud small seams of coal, in
which may be seen Sigillorim jmd Lepidodendra. Two feet below
group XXVI. there is a stratum of bituminous limestone, which
contains the scales of ganoid fishes (^Palceoniscus), coproiites, bi-
valve shells of the genus Naiadites and Spirorbis carhonarius at-
tached to plants and trunks of Sigillarioe.

The vertebrae, as already stated, are two in number : and when
discovered were attached to each other. Their uniformity in size
and appearance, as well as their collocation when found, would in-
dicate that they belonged to the same animal, and were contiguous
in the vertebra! column. They are remarkably well preserved ; and
this results from their complete ossification in their natural state, as
well as from the peculiar matrix which has since contained ihem?
and furnished the material for their mineralization. The posterior
vertebra, in fact, with the exception of a small fracture, seems to
be nearly as perfect as in its original condition ; and from it the
description and measurements which follow are mainly tak'^n.

k close examination of the fossils shows, that subsequent to the
death of the animal, and before being imbeded in the shale, they
were subjected to considerable violence. One of them has been
pushed aside from its original position about one-third of its di-
ameter, and also turned on its axis about 90°, so as to leave its
superior surface in apposition with the lateral surface of its fellow.
Through the center of the anterior vertebra an irregular cavity has
been made, and a wide fissure separates a segment from the rest of
the centrum. The edges of each of the fossils are somewhat
abraded, apparently from having been rolled about by water:
this, however, could not have been long continued ; as the
delicate reticulate texture of the non-articular surfaces, being
protected by their slight concavity, is perfectly preserved These
injuries were evidently received before the entombment of
the vertebrae ; and, as no similar remains could be found in the
vicinity when these were discovered, it is quite probable that the
same force, which caused tlie injuries, also widely separated the
different parts of the skeleton.

from the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia. 209

The general form of the vertebrae is cylindrical, but their sides,
are somewhat compressed obliquely, which gives to the contour
of the center a sub-hexagonal appearance. They are much flatten-
ed in the direction of the antero-posterior diameter, which has to
the transverse diameter about the proportion of 1 to 3. Both the
articular terminal facets are deeply and equally concave ; but
from the center to the margin, the surfaces are convex, and this
convexity is greatest near the center. The cavities for the reception
of the intervertebral matter begin immediately from the margin ;
and are considerably deeper than in the corresponding arts of the'
/cA^^yosawrws, indicating a greater degree of flexibility in the spinal
column. The margins of the vertebrae are somewhat raised, as if they
had yielded to a forcible compression applied longtiudinally and'
hence the lateral surfaces of the centers are concave in an antero-
posterior direction. This concavity is greater in the upper half of
the vertebra, and was undoubtedly more marked originally than at
present, since the appearance of the margins indicates considerable'
abrasion. The non-articular surfaces of the centra are smooth
and regular ; and the external fibres of the osseous tissue are
singularly reticulated.

-The neurapophyses are not anchylosedto the centrum, as in the
mammalia, nor connected to it by sutures, as in the crocodiles ;
but their union with the vertebra is indicated by two pits, which
served for their articulating surfaces. These depressions are sit-
uated on the supei-ior surfaces of the centrum, intermediate be-
tween the anterior and posterior margins of the extremities. They
are circular in form, and sink directly into the body of the verte-
bra; instead of being elongated longitudinally, and raised on
ridges, as in the Ichthyosauri. The pits are about a line in depth,
and in the more perfect of the fossils are not in their original
position ; as a fracture in the upper part of the centrum has push-
ed them obliquely apart, so that a line passing through their cen-
ters would form an angle of about 30*^ with the transverse
diameter of the vertebra. The depressions occupy about one-third
of the distance between the margins of the articular extremities,
indicating that the base of the neural arch was of less antero-pos-
terior extent than the centrum. The floor of the spinal canal is
narrow, being but five lines in breadth ; and its surface in the pos-
terior vertebra is broken by the fracture previously mentioned,
which passes lengthwise through its center. No neurapophyses
were found with these fossils, but the nature of the superior arch

Can. Nat. 14 Vol. VII.

210 Marsh, description of a new Enaliosmirian

is indicated by the articular surfaces which served for its attach-
ment. "Without doubt its ossification was complete, since the
neurapophyses are never inferior in this respect to the body of the
vertebra. It is also probable that in the present case these parts
were anchylosed to each other and to their spine, as in the neural
arch of the Ichthyosaurus.

A rudimentary transverse process, or exogenous tubercle, is sent
off from each lateral surface of the centrum, at points equidistant
from the extremities ofthe vertical diameter. Their position is near
the margin of the anterior articular surface, and the edges of these
parapophyses make the transverse diameter of this extremity some-
what greater than that of the corresponding facet. At the surface
ofthe vertebra, each of these tubercles is about six lines in diameter,
but they rapidly diminish in size as they extend outward, and at a
distance of one and a half lines from the centrum terminate in obtuse
points. They present no indications of articular surfaces; but exter-
nally appear to be composed of radiating fibres of osseous tissue, and
without doubt served for the attachment of muscles. These ele-
vations resemble in form and position the rudimentary transverse
processes on the caudal vertebrae of the Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris,
and this similarity affords some ground for referring these fossils
to the same part of the vertebral column. That their true posi-
tion is in the anterior or central caudal region, is further indicat-
ed by the absence from the centrum of true costal surfaces, or ar-
ticular depressions for the attachment of ribs, which we should
expect to find present in the cervical or dorsal part of the spinal
column ; and also by the absence of a lateral compression of the
centers, which, in the Ichthyosauri, marks the posterior caudal ver-
tebrae. Both of the fossils are somewhat injured on their inferior
surfaces, and hence it is impossible to ascertain from the specimens
themselves whether haemapophyses originally existed.

A microscopic examination of the osseous structure of these
vertebrae of the Eosaurus exhibits well-marked reptilian char-
acters. The Haversian canals are few in number, but large in
size, as is usual in this class. The lacuna?, although somewhat
irregular in shape, are much elongated, and show very little re-
semblance to the quadrate or stellate form of the bone cells in
fishes. They are frequently arranged concentrically around the
Haversian canals, and their walls are almost invariably well defined.
Thecanaliculi, as in the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, are not
numerous, but appear to be finer than those in most saurians. They

from the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia, 2 LI

do not taper off and ramify, as in the bones of fishes, nor anastomose
with the corresponding tubes from the neighboring cells, although in
one of the longitudinal sections there are a few indications of such
a connection. Some of the other sections examined show a larger
number of canaliculi ; but generally there are only a few
of these tubes attached to each lacuna, and in some cases they
appear to be entirely wanting. As the canaliculi vary
much in number in different saurians, and also with the age of
the animal, their paucity in this case is not remarkable. It is
possible, however, that the method employed in preparing the
sections was not well adapted to rendering these minute tubes
visible. In a part of the transverse section a structure is
seen, which is quite different from the surrounding osseous
substance. This may be due to the presence of a small
cavity in the bone before the introduction of the mineral
matter, or to an imperfect ossification at that point : more prob-
ably the latter, as these vertebrae, like those of the PlesiosauruSy
show in their interior structure a degree of ossification somewhat
inferior to that at the articular terminal surfaces.

It will readily be seen from the previous description, that a very
close resemblance exists between these vertebrae and those of the
Ichthyosaurus. This is especially noticeable in their flattened and
sub-hexagonal form, in their deep and regular terminal concavities^
and in the separate state of the neural arch. The differences
which exist, however, although of much less importance, must not
be disregarded. The most marked of these have already been
alluded to; and may be seen in the absence from the sides of the
centrum of costal articular surfaces, in the deeper concavities at
the vertebral extremities, and in the form and dimensions of the
superior arch. The first of these differences would alone be
deemed sufficient, by the highest authority, to establish a distinction
between these remains and the vertebra3 of the Ichthyosaurus;
for in that genus, according to the statement of Prof. Owen, which
is peculiarly applicable to the present case, — " The lower tubercle
for the attachment of the rib never wholly quits the centrum :
any detached vertebral centrum therefore that might be dis-
covered, which had no lateral tubercle or articular surface for a
rib, might be safely pronounced, whatever the form of its anterior
and posterior articular surfaces, not to have belonged to a true
Ichthyosaurus, provided it was not compressed laterally, as in the
small terminal ribless caudal vertebrie which supported the caudal

212 Marsh, description of anew Enaliosaurian

fin in the Ichthyosaurus.^^* The absence of any lateral compression in
the present remains, together with their sisse and proportions,
prove conclusively that they cannot be brought under the excep-
tion which Prof. Owen makes of the terminal caudal vertebrae of
the Ichthyosaurus ; and hence the application of his rule would
separate them from that genus.

The points of similarity, then, between these vertebrse of the
^o^awrws, and those oHhe Ichthyosaurus, which they most resem-
ble, clearly indicate that they belong to the same natural group
of marine reptiles, and to the same order; while the differences
which exist between them seem to be sufficiently numerous and
important to authorize the conclusion that they are generically
distinct ; as might naturally be expected from the vast periods
of time that separated their existence.

Since the genera of Enaliosaurians from the secondary forma-
tions, although contemporaneous, differed so widely in form and
structure, analogy would lead us to infer that a Palaeozoic repre-
sentative of the family would present still more marked peculiarities
in these respects. It is, therefore, particularly interesting to find
indications of so strong a resemblance between this primitive sau-
rian and the more recent Ichthyosaurus. These fossils, however,
present some features of a lower and more ichthyic type of struc-
ture than that genus possessed, and it is not unlikely that other
parts of the skeleton would show a wider divergence.

These vertebrae of the Uosaurus, although the only remains of
the genus at present known, are so characteristic and well pre-
served that they afford considerable evidence in regard to the
structure and habits of the animal to which they belonged.
They indicate that this reptile, like the later Enaliosaurians, was
of great size,* air-breathing, cold-blooded, and carnivorous ; that
it was aquatic, and probably marine, inhabiting the sea or es-
tuaries; or possibly, as might be inferred from the place of
its entombment, the mouths of rivers flowing into the sea.f The

* Report on British Fossil Reptiles, Part I, page 102.

♦ If we suppose the number of vertebrae and the relative length of the
head of this saurian to have been the same as the Ichthyosaurus, its entire
length must have been between twelve and fifteen feet, which is at least
three times the extent of any reptile hitherto found in Palaeozoic strata.

t Although the strata which contained the vertebra are probably
fluviatile or estuary deposits, this would not preclude the possibility of
their containing marine remains; as the waters from which they were
precipitated were undoubtedly so connected with the sea that an occasion-
al transfer of the inhabitants from one to the other might readily be made.
Analogous cases are not uncommon at the present time.

from the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia. 213

flattened form of the vertebrae ; the great depth of their ter-
minal concavities; the separate condition of the neural arch ; and
its short longitudinal extent at the base, — all are consistent with
the conclusion that the Uosaurus was capable of rapid progress
through the water in pursuit of its prey, which was probably fishes ;
and since it had then, according to our present knowledge, no su-
perior in point of size, it must have reigned supreme in the waters
of the Carboniferous era.

As the vertebrae which have been described in this paper were
discovered in 1855, they are, consequently, so far as the writer is
aware, the first osseous remains of a true air-breathing Saurian
from the Coal formation; and the only Enaliosaurian remains
yet obtained from below the Upper Triassic. Occurring as they
they do in Palaeozoic strata, they add another to the arguments
that have been brought against the so-called "Development
Theory ;" and they show with how great caution we should re-
ceive the assertions, so frequ